Across Europe, large carnivores are making a comeback. These top predators are often at the forefront of rewilding because they play an important role in the ecosystem as a keystone species. But, there are smaller, less well known carnivores in Europe that are equally deserving of our attention. The Scottish wildcat (Felis sylvestris) is the UK's only wild cat species and roams the glens and hillsides of the Scottish Highlands. Sadly, it is on the brink of extinction.

The Scottish wildcat is a subpopulation of the European wildcat. It may look similar to a large tabby cat, but it has some key differences, most notably its distinctive thick tail with black stripes and a black blunt tip. Scottish wildcats rely on habitat complexity and are often found in woodland edges, where they can take shelter in the woodland but maintain access to open hunting grounds, perfect for hunting rabbits, voles and mice.

Once upon a time, wildcats were widespread across the British mainland. However, the wildcat has suffered centuries of persecution. Since medieval times, the wildcat was been hunted for sport and persecuted as “vermin”. From the mid-19th century, when many sport hunting estates were established, the wildcat was persecuted as part of a management strategy to increase numbers of trophy species, such as grouse and pheasant. The latest research suggests that, today, there are only 100-300 Scottish wildcats left, existing in small, isolated populations in northern Scotland.

Today, the Scottish wildcat is at risk of extinction. It faces a myriad of threats, from hybridisation with domestic and feral cats, to habitat fragmentation and disturbance. Wildcats and domestic cats can produce viable offspring and this threatens Scottish wildcats with a process known as genetic introgression, whereby the gene pool of the wildcat is gradually replaced by that of the domestic cat. It also faces the threat of disease from and competition with the domestic cat, accidental killing through predator control intended for other species and from dogs, fluctuations in prey densities and road accidents.

Though the future of the Scottish wildcat looks bleak, there are many scientists and conservationists working hard to protect the species. Extensive camera trapping surveys, control of feral cats and education and community outreach are underway to safeguard the future of the wildcat in Scotland. Though genetic rescue using wildcats from continental Europe is likely necessary, extensive captive breeding programmes are underway to save the gene pool of the Scottish wildcat. Our partner, Alladale Wilderness Reserve, is one of the organisations breeding Scottish wildcats, and in the last three years (2018 - 2020) they’ve welcomed eight new kittens. Though there is still much to be done, it’s not too late to save Scotland’s most threatened mammal.

The Scottish wildcat (Felis sylvestris) is the UK's only wild cat species and roams the glens and hillsides of the Scottish Highlands. Sadly, it is on the brink of extinction.

Saving Scotland's Wildcats

In today's world, you'll have a hard time finding true wilderness. Many of the places that look wild are actually severely altered and eroded underneath the surface. Scotland is a good example. It’s been voted the world's most beautiful country in a number of polls. There's no denying its beauty, with its impressive mountain vistas and crystal clear lochs. But, look deeper and you'll find degraded landscapes and fragile ecosystems. Today, pioneering projects across Scotland are working to heal these ecological wounds and restore wilderness to these impressive landscapes. With some of the finest examples in Europe, Scotland is the perfect place to explore the wonderful world of rewilding.

Historically, much of Scotland was covered in forest. The Romans even gave it the name Caledonia, meaning 'wooded heights'. Swathes of Scots pine, birch, rowan, aspen and juniper covered the landscape and gave life to the vast Caledonian woodlands. The Celtic rainforest on the west coast was home to spectacular oak and birch trees that grew from a rich green carpet of mosses, ferns and lichens. Lush meadows, thriving wetlands and peat bogs, and vibrant dunes and coastal habitats flourished. Scotland's most iconic and rare wildlife, like the capercaillie and wildcat, were widespread and they lived alongside a diversity of species no longer found here. Lynx, wolves and wild boar once roamed this wild landscape. Since then, a combination of deforestation, overgrazing, persecution and climate change has transformed Scotland into a shadow of its former self. It has lost huge expanses of forest and many species have disappeared altogether.  

Over many centuries, felling for timber and farmland, combined with high densities of sheep, cattle and wild deer has had drastic ecological consequences for Scotland's woodlands. In the 1700s, large scale sport shooting and sheep grazing began to leave its mark on the landscape. Overabundant herbivores and over grazing, alongside regular burning, prevented woodlands from naturally regenerating, causing soil erosion, soil acidification, flooding, biodiversity loss and more. Sheep numbers have declined rapidly in Scotland in recent years, but deer management has been largely unsuccessful and red and roe deer numbers continue to increase. Deer are still a major ecological problem limiting the regeneration and expansion of woodland in almost all parts of Scotland. With all of their natural predators  (lynx, wolves and brown bears) absent from the landscape, winter mortality and shooting are the only controls on deer numbers.

Today, things are beginning to change once again, this time for the better. Baby Scots pine are recolonizing bare landscapes, red squirrels and pine martens are moving back into lost territory, and rare wildflowers and blaeberry are growing strong in patches of relict pinewood. These changes are being brought about by pioneering rewilding projects across Scotland. Initiatives like Trees for Life and Cairngorms Connect are some of the finest examples of habitat restoration in the UK. Private estates like Alladale Wilderness Reserve and Glenfeshie are also rejecting the traditional deer stalking culture, where management is aimed at maximising deer numbers for sport hunting, choosing to dramatically reduce deers numbers in the name of habitat restoration. With extra help from protective fencing and active planting, tree seedlings now carpet these glens once more.

Habitat restoration is a huge part of the rewilding movement in Scotland, but it's not all. Considerable efforts are being made to conserve existing populations of wildcats, pine martens and other rare species. Through reintroductions, previously absent species, like the sea eagle, are making a comeback. The idea of returning apex predators, like lynx and wolves, has also entered the rewilding narrative. With a full compliment of keystone species, like apex predators and ecosystem engineers, we could give nature the tools to thrive once again in Scotland. 

Today, Scotland's land and ocean habitats are already a little bit wilder and that's worth celebrating. But, we must do more. With such wonderful changes already happening, there really is no better time to join the movement than now. If you’d like to see beavers back in Scotland’s rivers, wildcats denning in pine forests and ospreys patrolling the skies, you’re in good company. A wilder future for Scotland is entirely possible.

Our rewilding and reforestation projects aim to heal Scotland's degraded landscapes and contribute toward rewilding Scotland.

Rewilding Scotland

A Wilder Future For Scotland's Natural World

The image of bison herds roaming vast open grasslands might immediately make you think of Yellowstone National Park or the prairies of Montana and Canada. Lesser known, is the fact that Europe’s landscapes were once home to large herds of the European bison (Bison bonasus), a cousin to the North American bison (Bison bison), or ‘buffalo’. It too has a troubling past since the population reached a mere 12 individuals at one point.

The European bison, or wisent, is very similar to the North American bison, but there are some notable differences in both appearance and behaviour. The European bison is less hairy, has a slimmer build and longer legs. Its horns are more curved, an adaptation that enables them to fight by locking horns as opposed to butting. They do, however, share a sad history. The North American bison declined to around 300 individuals after the arrival of Europeans. Their prairie habitat was converted to ranches for cattle farming and they were victims of a vicious slaughter. Settlers hunted them for food and hides but also in an attempt to devastate the Indigenous people of Turtle Island, many of whom relied on bison for food, clothing and housing. During 1871 and 1872, an average of 5,000 bison were killed every day. 

European bison also suffered a drastic decline at the hands of humans. By the 20th century, only two populations survived after decades of over-hunting and habitat loss. One, in the remote Northern Caucasus Mountains of Russia, which later disappeared, and a more viable population in Poland’s Białowieża Forest, where a herd of around 600 bison remained. In World War I, occupying Germans took the Białowieża Forest and hunted the bison until only a handful survived. The survivors were then placed in zoos and a captive breeding programme began. European bison had disappeared completely from Europe's wild landscapes. 

Today, there are now around 6,000 wild and semi-wild bison living in Poland, Germany, France, Spain and elsewhere thanks to ambitious reintroduction projects. In the Netherlands, European bison have been returned to areas they have been lost for centuries, like the Kraansvlak reserve. Our project partners in Romania, Foundation Conservation Carpathia, recently released eight bison into the wild, in the remote areas of the Southern Carpathian mountains, following the first reintroduction led by Rewilding Europe.  

Part of the drive to reintroduce bison stems from their role as a ‘keystone’ species. Just like the American bison have played a role in grassland management, European bison can help create and maintain open grasslands and meadows, supporting a wealth of insects and birds. They can also help spread seeds through their dung, as well as fertilize and break up the soil to enable vegetation to grow. 

However, since biologists have only been able to study the most adaptable of the species, those that have successfully clung on and survived in relatively safe refuges, there is still a lot about European bison we don’t know. Given its relative success in the Bialowieża forest, European bison are typically thought of as a forest species. However, being a large grazing bovid, its evolutionary background, dental morphology, neonatal behaviour, diet and microhabitat selection is characteristic of a grazing species inhabiting open, grass‐rich habitats. The European bison we know today might be an example of a refugee species, one that can no longer access optimal habitat, confined to suboptimal habitats, with consequences for fitness and density. Whether bison prefer open grasslands, woodlands or a combination of the two remains uncertain. As we continue to find more room to live alongside Europe’s largest land animal once again, we can make space for them to roam in their preferred habitat, enabling us to better understand and conserve this charismatic species. 

Much like the North American bison, European bison have been important to human culture for millennia, featuring in the cave art of pre-historic people as far back as 20,000 years ago. Today, they have captured our attention once again. With continued conservation and reintroduction efforts, this Pleistocene beast might once again roam free across much of Europe’s grasslands and woodlands.

Europe’s landscapes were once home to large herds of bison. Part of the drive for the return of the European bison stems from their role as a ‘keystone’ species.

The Return of European Bison

The past decades have witnessed an unprecedented acceleration of species and habitat loss. This phenomenon has been called by scientists the sixth mass extinction, and it is mainly caused by human activity. Concretely, it means that 3 out of 4 species that we are familiar with could be gone within a few decades. In the past 40 years, we have annihilated about half of the wildlife living on the planet. Just seeing these facts could discourage anyone from doing something about it since it seems like such a lost battle. But conservation efforts and rising awareness on threats on wildlife have managed to save some species from extinction.

The main drivers of the sixth mass extinction are related to human activities. Anthropogenic climate change is creating unpredictable and irreversible damage to species’ habitats and increasing the occurrences of extreme climate events. Land-use change is also a driver of species extinction. More and more wilderness areas are converted to agricultural land, especially biodiversity hotspots like the rainforest. Poaching and illegal trade of endangered species is decimating some extremely vulnerable species like the pangolin or the white rhinoceros.

The sixth mass extinction is here and individual actions can help spread awareness and make a change before some more precious species disappear.

The first thing is to identify what impacts your carbon footprint the most. Estimate your carbon footprint with our carbon calculator. If you live in a developed country, your biggest carbon footprint likely comes from what you eat and how you travel.

Secondly, think about the way you consume and the food you eat. Reducing meat and dairy intake in the developed world is a priority. If land used to grow animal feed was used to grow crops for direct human consumption, feeding the 7 billion would be possible without needing to convert anymore precious rainforest into farmland. Eating plant-based is a concrete step you can take towards protecting our environment from mass extinction. Another important step is to make sure that the products you buy are sustainably sourced and do not contain products that are harmful to the environment. Palm-oil which is present in a lot of processed food, cosmetics and soaps is a known driver of tropical deforestation. Another example of products to avoid in cosmetics is animal squalane (extracted from shark liver). A lot of eco-labelling systems can help you find your way in the jungle of products.

Reduce, reuse, recycle. Try to be mindful of your choice as a consumer in all aspect, since all of our choices affect the planet we live on. Reducing consumption altogether is a great way to start since our planet’s resources our finite, and as population expands, the pressure on our planet is always increasing. From buying second hand clothes to living plastic free, there is a lot to be done.

Last but not least, do not encourage any trade related to endangered species, especially while travelling. Purchasing products sourced from illegal wildlife trade like ivory is driving species to extinction. Always be attentive to the products you are buying to not encourage activities that are detrimental to animal populations. To be sure you can always check out CITES’ (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) website.

The past decades have witnessed an unprecedented acceleration of species and habitat loss. This phenomenon has been called by scientists the 6th mass extinction.

What Is The Sixth Mass Extinction And What Can I Do About It?

Western Europe has lost huge swathes of wilderness, but nowhere more so than Ireland. Once home to the Gaels, or "forest people", Ireland is an ecological shadow of its former self. It has lost most of its biodiverse woodlands, species-rich grasslands and large mammals. In a landscape that has been so drastically changed, it's hard to imagine how it could once again be home to wild areas. That's because wilderness is often thought of as vast landscapes home to large predators and herbivores and completely devoid of human development. However, across Europe, rewilding is more about making landscapes more wild, as if moving the landscape across a wilderness spectrum, without necessarily becoming wild in the strictest sense of the word. With that in mind, this article explores whether there is space for rewilding in Ireland. 

When people arrived in Ireland around 12,000 years ago, they would have encountered an island covered in vast woodlands. Oak, elm, Scots pine, birch, Rowan, and holly grew above blankets of ferns, mosses, liverworts, and thickets of honeysuckle and ivy. The foxes, pine martens and red squirrels that live in Ireland today roamed these woodlands alongside wolves, bears and wild boar. Once the most forested country in Europe, today only 11% is covered in woodland. Of this, only 2% is native. For the wildlife that depended on these woodlands, small fragments are all that remain. Wildlife populations soon dwindled and, with the added pressure of persecution and a dwindling prey base, many species were lost entirely.

With such a large agricultural industry, Ireland could see huge rewilding gains by changing the way farmland is managed to more wildlife and forest friendly practices. Initiatives are underway to encourage farmers to set aside areas of their land for habitat restoration and many farmers are now being paid for the wildlife their land supports. This may not evoke the kind of rewilding images that we are used to, but over time, these areas of farmland could provide important habitat for a diversity of invertebrates, birds, and mammals. By moving large areas of Ireland’s farmlands towards the wilder end of the wilderness spectrum, we could help support nature across the country.

There is also room for the return of lost species to Ireland's landscapes. Birds of prey, like the sea eagle, golden eagle, and red kite, species that disappeared altogether from Ireland, are making a comeback. Though they never completely disappeared from Ireland, pine martens are expanding their territories across the country. So too are red squirrels, reintroduced from Britain in the 19th century. Though Ireland may not be ready for the lynx or wolf, ambitious reintroduction efforts of smaller, less controversial species are making the country a little bit wilder.  Head over to our Wildlife in Ireland article to understand the current state of affairs. 

Ireland is now home to its first large wilderness area, Nephin Beg Range. 8,000 hectares has been set aside for habitat restoration and reforestation with the vision to return the landscape to nature.  The aim is to enable natural processes to work uninterrupted to create thriving, dynamic ecosystems. Though centuries of ecological degradation and the long-term absence of species have diminished our memory of what Ireland once was, we are now starting to see what it can be. With continued rewilding projects, both big and small, we can return Ireland to a wilder state while leaving room for people. In partnership with the local organisation, Home Tree, we are working to return degraded farmland to native woodland with the aim of rewilding these areas even further through species conservation and rewilding projects.

Rewilding The Nephin Beg Range

Europe has lost huge swathes of wilderness, but nowhere more so than Ireland. Is rewilding Ireland the answer, and if so, is there space or mindset for it?

Rewilding Ireland

Is there the space or mindset for rewilding? 

Romania’s natural world is arguably one of Europe’s last true wilderness areas. Old-growth forests blanket vast mountain ranges that stretch across the country. They offer refuge for European wildlife in an otherwise densely populated and highly developed continent. Wolves, bears, and lynx all thrive here. However, unsustainable logging and abusive exploitation practises have severely damaged thousands of hectares of forests and exposed vast areas of the mountainside to erosion. Whats more, recent decades have seen native, diverse forests replaced with spruce monocultures plantations. To protect this landscape and the diversity of species that depend on it from increasing human exploitation, Mossy Earth has partnered with Foundation Conservation Carpathia (FCC) in rewilding Romania.

Though Romania still has much of its forest habitat intact, many areas are under immense pressure from unsustainable logging and exploitation practices. Huge areas of forest in the Carpathian Mountains are being cleared in their entirety, rather than selectively cutting a few trees over a larger area, a much more sustainable practice. As huge swathes of trees are cleared, the soil is left vulnerable to disastrous levels of soil erosion. To restore these clear-cut areas and improve the soil structure, the team surveys the area to assess the extent of the damage, the level of regeneration that is already taking place, and the absence of important species. Once this has been done, trees are grown in local nurseries until they are strong enough to be planted out in the field. Pioneer species are planted first to help restore the soil before a diversity of other species are planted that recreate the original forest composition.

An additional pillar of rewilding Romania is having a team of rangers on the ground. The rangers are recruited from the local community to carry out regular forest patrols in order to protect the old growth forests. Having a presence in the mountains helps protect these forests from illegal logging and deters poachers from illegal hunting. It also helps to connect the local community, who are hired as rangers, with the conservation of their natural environment. Moreover, much of the landscape under restoration is being incorporated into the Piatra Craiului National Park or an alternative protected status. 

Once the clear-cut areas have been replanted and the trees have had time to grow, they will increase the habitat available for a diversity of species. Romania is home to a significant portion of the species that are threatened across Europe, many of them relying on these forest habitats for survival. The project also helps reconnect isolated forest patches so that animals can move safely across the landscape. To keep track of the species that are present in the region, camera traps are placed across the project area. This also allows the team to monitor wildlife movements, habitat use, and behaviour, and can inform estimates of population sizes and whether they are stable, increasing or decreasing.

The Carpathians - Europe's Only True Wilderness

There are many reasons to celebrate Romania's natural world. But, as the country continues to develop, the old-growth forests that have provided a wildlife refuge for Europe’s sensitive species are increasingly under threat. In partnership with Foundation Conservation Carpathia, we are working to restore clear-cuts in the Romania's Southern Carpathian Mountains. Our goal is to reverse the impacts of illegal logging that threaten these forests. With your support we can restore these degraded clear-cuts to healthy, functioning and biodiverse forests and protect Romania’s great wild spaces.

Mossy Earth's Rewilding Romania projects seek to protect and preserve one of Europe’s last true wilderness areas where wolves, bears & lynx all thrive here.

Rewilding Romania

One of Europe’s last true wilderness areas

The rewilding movement can often feel beyond our reach. It’s usually associated with vast landscapes of remote wilderness and large carnivores. While this is often the case, we can apply rewilding principles to our own lives. By rewilding your garden, balcony, or window boxes, you can help native plants and animals, no matter how small the area. Here, we’ve put together a list of things you can do to rewild your outdoor space.

Let your outdoor space get a little wild. We’re often used to the idea of tidy gardens but too much manicuring can strip your garden of its ecological value. Letting nature take its course in your garden space can provide food and habitat for a variety of species. 

If you have an area of grass, let it grow fairly tall before you cut it to provide shelter for wildlife. Let native flowers self seed on your lawn to provide pollinators with food, in turn attracting birds and other predators to your garden. 

Leaving piles of wood and leaves to rot provides habitat for an abundance of invertebrates, fungi, and moss and can provide a sustainable source of compost.

Garden centres will often advertise which species are good for bees, butterflies and other native insects. Providing food for pollinators will attract birds and other predators and create a thriving ecosystem in your backyard.  If you live in a flat, fill a window box with insect friendly plants to attract bees and butterflies. 

Non-native plants that are closely related to our native species can provide a wealth of benefits to local wildlife. Planting native species, however, will avoid problems with non-natives becoming invasive and will improve that chances that your garden will thrive in the local climate. If you decide to plant native species, make sure they are of genuine native stock and sourced legally.

Areas of concrete and short grass represent a barrier to wildlife movement. Plant borders and pathways to create a wildlife corridor for small mammals like hedgehogs. 

Encourage birds into your garden with feeders and boxes to nest in. Also consider planting fruit bearing trees to attract birds and squirrels. Install a bug hotel where native insects can lay their eggs. If you’re in an area with hedgehogs, you could also install a hedgehog hut.

If you have an area large enough, consider rewilding your garden with a water feature. A pond can provide habitat for a variety of amphibians and invertebrates. It’s also a source of water for small mammals and birds. You can create a pond with as little as a bucket and a few aquatic plants. 

Think Sustainably When You Rewild Your Garden

To create a sustainable outdoor area, recycle where possible, collect rainwater to use in place of tap water, and ensure your compost is peat-free. If you can, consider making your own compost. Propagate your own plants by buying seed packets or taking cuttings to avoid buying unnecessary plastic pots. Consider the 'no-dig method' of gardening that relies on the natural processes taking place within undisturbed soil. Proponents claim that by avoiding disrupting the soil life, beneficial organisms and microbes are able to provide nutrients and moisture to the growing plants. Our actions can have an impact on the natural world beyond our garden. These tips are designed to help you not just minimise your negative impact on the planet, but make positive impact on the world's flora and fauna right in your back garden.  

Chris Packham shares his top tips on how to rewild your garden

How can people rewild where they live?

I don’t like formal gardens, I like wild nature. It’s just the wilderness instinct in me, I guess.

Rewilding your garden, balcony or window boxes, will help native plants & wildlife, no matter how small an area. Here's a how to guide to rewild your garden.

Rewild Your Garden

Rewilding your green space, will help native plants & wildlife

Trophic cascades take place when predators at the apex of a food chain alter the numbers not just of their own prey, but also of the species with which they have no direct connection. Their impacts cascade down the food web, in some cases radically transforming the ecosystem and surrounding landscape.

One of the strangest trophic cascade effects is the correlation between the decimation of India’s vultures and an epidemic outbreak of rabies. In a relatively short period, vulture populations dwindled due to the use of an anti-inflammatory drug administered to cattle called diclofenac. The drug was fatal to vultures when they consumed carcasses containing traces of it. As the vulture populations collapsed, the carrion they ate, was instead consumed by feral dogs, which correspondingly boosted their numbers. Dog bites are said to be the cause of 95% of the deaths from rabies in India, and the rising number of feral dogs has meant more people are likely to be infected by the disease.

In northern Europe, salmon that live in beaver dams are generally much bigger than salmon in other parts of the rivers. The dams built by beavers provide salmon with shelter they cannot find elsewhere, and so the juvenile salmon grow faster and become healthier and stronger. The total weight of all the creatures living in the water may be between two and five times greater in beaver ponds than in undammed waterways.

In addition to improving salmon stocks, the beaver plays an unwittingly yet vital role in flood prevention. So much so that environmental agencies are now mimicking beaver behaviour by putting woody debris back into streams and rivers to slow the water flow. Such an approach to flood management is simple and effective but very expensive – while beavers could be doing it for nothing!

Though the majestic lynx has not yet been reintroduced into Scotland, there are a growing number of advocates for its return.

An introduction of lynx would help curb numbers of roe and other small deer species, which currently overrun much of the Scottish Highlands.

Yet an even more surprising effect of lynx suppressing deer numbers would be a corresponding decline in cases of Lyme’s disease. Spread to humans by deer ticks, Lyme’s disease is a debilitating and sometimes incurable illness, which according to an article on Lyme’s disease in Health Spectator has increased in England, Wales and Scotland over the last ten years. There could be no better time to bring back the lynx!

Every springtime bluebells transform the UK’s woodlands, and it’s these uninterrupted carpets of intense blues and purples that have made British woods so famous. However during a recent visit to Knepp Wildland in Sussex, I learnt an inconvenient truth that a monoculture of any species (including bluebells) is an indication, not of the wealth of the ecosystem, but its poverty!

If you go to Knepp Wildland in spring, which is as close to being an undisturbed ecosystem in the UK, you won’t find woodland floors carpeted in bluebells. Instead, you’ll find a whole host of wildflowers jostling one another in an explosion of colour. Such vibrancy and variety demonstrate just how much the rest of Britain’s woodlands are missing, and the extent to which wild boar or in the case of Knepp, Tamworth pigs transform their environment.

The free-roaming Tamworth pigs at Knepp and the wild boars of northern Europe can live alongside bluebells, but not only bluebells. By rooting and grubbing on the woodland floor, they create small wetlands in their wallows, and habitats for a fascinating and vibrant host of flora and fauna, and ultimately a much richer ecosystem, albeit with fewer bluebells.

The infamous wolves of Yellowstone, kept elk populations in check as well as influencing their grazing patterns, which inadvertently rewilded riverbanks. The resulting regrowth attracted greater numbers of songbirds, larger birds of prey, and enabled populations of salmon, beaver and bison to increase.

And if that wasn’t enough, the wolves unwittingly re-engineered the soil composition. As the numbers of salmon rose, which are caught by bears, otters, eagles and ospreys, as did the amount of salmon carcasses dragged onto land and eaten. The carcasses, rich in nutrients, were spread along the riverbanks in the animals’ dung. It’s said that up to 16% of the nitrogen in the leaves of trees within 500m of a salmon stream came from the sea.

Knepp Estate

This farm in England is run by its animals | Pioneers for Our Planet

Aldo Leopold, an influential American scientist and conservationist

The last word in ignorance is the man who says of an animal or plant: What good is it?

Trophic cascades take place when apex predators alter the numbers not just of their own prey but also of the species with which they have no direct connection.

Trophic Cascades - Five Unexpected Effects

Salmon is one of Scotland's biggest food exports, second only to whiskey. Unfortunately, this booming industry comes with a cost. The salmon we buy across Britain typically comes not from wild fish but farms, many of them located off the coast of Scotland. So, while wild salmon numbers reached a record low in 2018, in supermarkets, salmon was plentiful. In this article, we'd like to outline some of the issues surrounding salmon farming in Scotland and its impacts on wild fish populations and the wider ocean ecosystems.

Every year in Autumn, Scotland's crystal clear salmon rivers and streams are transformed into a frenzy of fish leaping and swimming their way upstream to spawn in freshwater gravel beds, before returning to sea. Today, the number of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) making this arduous journey is a fraction of what it once was. As a result, anglers are now engaged in a voluntary scheme to release any salmon caught in Scotland's glens, but many sources argue that the problem is out at sea. Though dams and weirs are known to obstruct migratory routes of salmon, at sea, they’re facing a combination of severe threats. Climate breakdown, a diminishing food supply and commercial salmon farming are all threatening the survival of Scotland’s iconic salmon.

Salmon farming in Scotland has overrunthe oceans off the West Coast and Western and Northern Isles of Scotland. With the longest coastline on the British Isles, Scotland's ocean habitats are precious. Now, some of the most important areas for wild salmon and sea trout in Scotland are shared with thousands of farmed salmon. They’re kept in open-net pens that allow fresh water to flow in and faeces, diseases, uneaten food, chemical treatments, medicines, and sometimes even fish themselves, to flow out into the wider ecosystem.   

With thousands of fish in each pen, salmon farms can act as a breeding ground for diseases and pests, in particular, sea lice. Almost half of the salmon farms in Scotland are infested with the common salmon louse (Lepeophtheirus salmonis). The louse causes skin lesions and heavy infestations can result in death. This is a particular problem for wild salmon and trout as farms are often located in areas inhabited by these species.

Antibiotics and pesticides are often used to manage sea lice and other diseases. These chemicals can flow out of the pens and into the surrounding waters, threatening the health of Scotland’s coastal ecosystems and the wildlife that lives there. According to some sources, the levels of chemicals used to kill sea lice have breached environmental safety limits more than 100 times in the last 10 years. 

Farmed salmon are also often fed with small fish, such as anchovies, herring and sardines, harvested from the wild. Wild wrasse is also harvested for use as cleaner fish to control sea lice numbers. Though it's argued that farmed fish are more sustainable because they’re not harvested from wild populations, it's likely that they're still contributing to the depletion of other wild fish populations. 

Occasionally, fish can escape from farms and enter the ocean ecosystems. These fish can spread disease, compete for food and habitat, and cross-breed with wild salmon. In doing so, they dilute the gene pool of wild salmon, which are adapted to local conditions, and reduce the fitness of wild populations.

Many of the threats impacting wild salmon populations, like climate breakdown, will take time to rectify. Unsustainable farming, on the other hand, is comparatively easy to solve. Salmon farms must address the issues outlined above and adapt quickly to safeguard the survival of salmon in Scotland. As consumers, we also have an opportunity to make a big difference, by consuming more consciously and sustainably. Along with many other species of fish, salmon are facing considerable threats, but there is a lot we can do to change things for the better.

Salmon farms in Scotland threaten wild populations of this iconic species through disease, pollution, genetic mixing and more. 

Salmon Farming in Scotland

In this article, we’d like to showcase some of the amazing wildlife in Ireland, discuss their characteristics, their threats and their importance in an ecosystem. We will also investigate whether there really is room for a return of wolves in Ireland.

A hen harrier has recently been spotted close to our Irish reforestation project for the first time in 20 years, rousing hopes that the native raptor will return indefinitely to this area of Ireland. A spectacular bird of prey, famed for the differences between male and female, the former is slim, streamlined and mainly silver-grey and white, except for black wing tips while his better half is larger, predominantly brown with fine black markings.

Hen harriers are also notorious for flying very low when hunting, flickering wing-beats followed by short glides and “quartering” systematically back and forth and across its territory in pursuit of small birds and rodents. Harriers are also an indicator species that tells us whether the ecosystem they hunt over is healthy.

Pine Marten – Ireland’s Rarest Native Mammal

The pine marten is Ireland’s rarest native mammal, with just 2,700 individuals remaining. They like to roam well wooded areas with plenty of cover while their dens are commonly found in hollow trees or fallen root masses. Though excellent climbers they prefer to hunt on the ground preying on small rodents, birds, carrion, beetles, eggs fungi and berries.

Their greatest threat to wildlife in Ireland, and no more so to the pine marten, has been humans. The loss of woodlands and the persecution of hunters who fear they take eggs and kill game birds have led to the pine marten's demise. Despite years of persecution, numbers in Ireland are fortunately recovering, coinciding with their new-found value as a rewilding species. The resurgent pine martens appear to have rolled back the grey squirrel population, allowing red squirrels to recolonise much of their old territory. Unlike reds, grey squirrels appear to be easy meat for the pine marten.

The hare is an inherent part of Ireland’s culture, it is as mystical and mythical as Ireland itself. The hare has graced Ireland’s green fields for 20,000 years, making the hare the nation’s oldest mammal.

Hares rely on high-speed endurance running to escape predation, having distinctive long hind legs and large nostrils to do so. Hares are herbivorous and feed mainly on grasses, field crops, buds, and herbs. While rabbits gather in social groups called ‘herds’ and nest underground in warrens, hares are solitary for most of their lives and sleep above ground in their grassland habitats. Generally nocturnal and shy in nature, hares change their behaviour in the spring, when they can be seen in broad daylight chasing one another around in fields.

Once the revered animal of the Saxon goddess of dawn and a sacred creature in Gael mythology, the hare is facing her biggest challenge yet, modern Ireland. Farmers argue hares strip the fields of good grass leaving little for the dairy cows to eat. – One of Ireland’s biggest industries. Though numbers are in decline due to snares, agricultural chemicals, and habit loss, there are some signs of hope …at Ireland’s airports, where they are free of predators and farmers.

On can not discuss wildlife in Ireland without mentioning the misconceived badger. The European badger is a powerfully built black, white, and grey animal. It is a nocturnal, social, burrowing animal that sleeps during the day in one of several setts in its territorial range. These burrows, which may house several badger families, have extensive systems of underground passages and chambers and have multiple entrances. Some setts have been in use for decades. Badgers are very fussy over the cleanliness of their burrow, carrying in fresh bedding and removing soiled material, and they defecate in latrines strategically situated around their territory. Moreover, they are known to even share their burrow with other species such as rabbits and foxes.

Their greatest threat is the controversial government program which culls 7000 badgers a year to minimise the spreading of Bovine tuberculosis, costing the country 3.6 million a year. Despite the lack of any verifiable statistical data linking TB from badgers to cattle, the culling continues with inhumane snares. 80% of badgers caught are not even carrying TB, and when a lactating female is caught her young are left to starve.

IRELAND'S BEAUTIFUL WILDLIFE - A Tribute to some of the amazing wildlife in Ireland - Nature

Before becoming extinct in 1786, wolves were once an integral part of wildlife in Ireland and Irish culture, and up until the Middle Ages Ireland was often referred to as Wolfland because of its high number of wolves. The Irish landscape was the perfect environment for wolves with mountains, forests, and tundra to roam, and an abundance of deer and wild boar.

In recent years there has been a call, by various groups, for the reintroduction of wolves to Ireland. But just how realistic is this romantic rewilding Ireland idea? On the one hand, a re-introduction could help manage deer overpopulation, decrease tree damage from grazing, and boost eco-tourism in such areas as wolf watching. However, Ireland is a country with a huge agriculture industry, where livestock can be found everywhere. Though wolves pose no danger to humans, the damage to livestock would present huge problems. Furthermore, as there is not enough wild territory nor corridors in Ireland to accommodate a successful wolf pack, only a small number of wolves can be reintroduced and this small population would have to be extensively managed and artificially controlled.

Discover wildlife in Ireland, their characteristics, threats, and importance in an ecosystem. Also, find out whether Ireland has room for the return of the wolf.

Wildlife in Ireland

"Trees are essential for life on earth, and European trees in all their diversity are a source of food and shelter for countless animal species such as birds and squirrels, and play a key economic role " Craig Hilton-Taylor, head of IUCN Red List Unit.

The sixth mass extension, the accelerated loss of habitats and species, continues to unfold and threatens Europe’s native woodlands. According to the latest report by IUCN, more than half of Europe’s endemic tree species – those that don’t exist anywhere else on the planet – face extinction.

Forest covers approximately 33% of land in Europe. In 2019, IUCN report 454 native tree species have been evaluated leading to some frightening results: 42% of native species are threatened with extinction (assessed as Vulnerable, Endangered, or Critically Endangered) and 58% of endemic trees are threatened.

The highest impact is suffered by the Sorbus genus with more than three-quarters of its species threatened and about one-third critically endangered. Among these trees are the mountain-ash and Ley’s whitebeam, of which there are currently only 9 trees left in Wales. Other affected species are the horse-chestnut, well known for its polished brown fruits used in the children’s game conkers, the Balkan pine, and the Serbian spruce.

What threatens our native European species and therefore our ecosystems? Here are some of the main causes:

Alien invasive and problematic species – This is the most severe threat, affecting 38% of tree species. It includes pests, diseases, and alien invasive plants, often introduced by humans as a result of the increased global trade.

Deforestation, degradation, and wood harvesting – Trees are harvested for timber and non-wood products or entire forests and woodlands are clear-felled and converted to agricultural fields.

Climate change – Though climate change is an indirect threat, it has the potential to affect many tree species. Extreme weather events, floods, droughts, fires – all have an impact on biodiversity. Furthermore, the changing climate can favour invasive species, which then can spread and compete with the native species

Fire – This could be the result of climate change events or anthropogenic in nature, in the case of deliberate forest fires.

Land abandonment, ecosystem modifications, and urban development – Traditional management practices are being abandoned, affecting the environment. Moreover, natural habitats are reduced, disturbed or even destroyed by the expansions of urban, tourism, and industrial areas.

More than half of Europe's native trees risk extinction - TomoNews

It is important that we continue to have these tree species on our continent. Native and endemic species play an important role for the entire ecosystem. They enhance biodiversity, which means that if they cease to exist, other organism such as fungi or insects, that are associated and depend on these trees will disappear too. Native species are adapted to site conditions and are more resistant and can help boost the entire ecosystem resilience. They also have an effect on soil quality and can help conserve water. According to the IUCN report, most European trees have at least one recorded use: food, medicine, construction, fuel, cultural etc. so it is important to try to save and restore these species.

Follow and read about our projects to see how we, at Mossy Earth, include native trees in restoration and rewilding actions.

Luc Bas, director of IUCN’s Europe Office.

This report has shown how dire the situation is for many overlooked, undervalued species that form the backbone of Europe's ecosystems and contribute to a healthy planet.

More than half of Europe’s endemic tree species, those that don’t exist anywhere else on the planet – face extinction! We explore the problem, causes & effects.

Tree Extinction

One of the things we enjoy most about visiting our Wildfire Restoration & Rewilding project in Portugal, is the presence of vultures circling overhead as we tree plant. Whether you call them a committee, vault or venue of vultures, these majestic raptors can be found soaring effortlessly in the thermal columns high above the Douro valley. – This is their home, breeding ground and even migration point for the spectacular Egyptian vulture that come north each summer to nest.

The tall granite cliffs that surround our reforestation area in the Douro Valley are home to the medieval looking Griffon, the migrating Egyptian vultures and endangered Black vultures. They all scavenge on a range of food from mammal faeces, to insects in dung, carrion, small animals and vegetable matter. Having a forest and ecosystem in this area again will be crucial for their survival.

Тhe Griffon prefers to feed on the softer parts of carcasses, such as the muscles and viscera. Its long neck, allows it to reach far into a carcass without snagging. They are very social in comparison to other vulture species. They are mostly silent but make high-pitched mewing or hissing notes at the nest and screeching noises when squabbling at a carcass.

Did you know? A group of vultures feeding is called a wake, and that the leader of the committee will always eat first with wings spread wide. It is only when it lowers its wings that the other vultures may begin to eat.

The Egyptian vulture, also known as the pharaoh’s chicken, is a comparatively smaller vulture. Its contrasting underwing pattern and wedge-shaped tail make it distinctive in flight as it soars in thermals during the warmer parts of the day. Egyptian vultures feed mainly on carrion but are opportunistic and so will prey on small mammals, birds, and reptiles. They also feed on the eggs of other birds, breaking larger ones by tossing a large pebble onto them.

The Black vulture is one of the two largest vultures in the world, attaining a size of up to 14 kg in weight, 1.2 metres in height and boasting a whopping 3 metre wingspan. The Black vulture is distinctly dark, with the whole body being dark brown excepting the pale head in adults, which is covered in fine blackish down. It is a bird of hilly, mountainous areas, especially favouring dry semi-open habitats such as meadows at high altitudes. They are always associated with undisturbed, remote areas with limited human disturbance. In contrast to the Griffon, they are a solitary bird, largely being found alone or in pairs.

Griffon vulture is classified as Least Concern, while the black vulture is classified as Near Threatened (NT), on the IUCN Red List. 

Poisoning after illegal use of poison baits targeted at large carnivores (e.g. wolves, jackals) to protect livestock and game.

Lead poisoning by hunting ammunition, effect of veterinary drug contamination

Electrocution end collision caused by electric transfer networks

Supporting the comeback of vultures in this area of Portugal is not only good for nature itself, but great for the area’s thriving nature-based economy too. The 200km long Côa Valley Grand Route takes hikers, birdwatchers and wildlife enthusiasts passed our plantation area, allowing them to see the vultures first hand.

Through our rewilding interventions we are looking to: 

Build nesting platforms in the Côa Valley

GPS tagging to understand feeding patterns

Gathering camera trap footage that help track population numbers

Cover veterinary costs for injured vultures

Help maintain the valley’s pigeon lofts

Assist with ongoing research into their behaviour and migration patterns

Not strictly vulture related, but worth sharing. – An Iberian-imperial eagle, classified as one of the most endangered birds of prey in Europe, was recently spotted in the municipality of Miranda do Douro, which means that this “rare bird” may be back in the territory of our Wildfire Restoration project. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the breeding population of the Iberian-imperial eagle disappeared completely from the North of Portugal.

There are just 17 pairs of imperial-Iberian eagles nesting in the South of Portugal, and this sighting may mean that the number is increasing because the bird sighted was juvenile. The sighting was captured by a camera trap close to our plantation area by our conservation partners Palombar researching the field of feeding necrophagous birds.

One of the things we enjoy most about visiting our Wildfire Restoration project in Portugal, is the presence of vultures circling overhead as we tree plant.

Vultures in the Douro Valley Portugal

Species present, conservation status & threats

A single bee colony can pollinate 300 million flowers each day. Grains are primarily pollinated by the wind, but fruits, nuts, and vegetables are pollinated by bees. Seventy out of the top 100 crops that humans consume, which supplies up to 90% of the world’s nutrition, are pollinated by bees! No bees, no food, it’s that simple. We need to save the bees!

Bee communities, both wild and managed, have been declining over the last half-century. Scientists have found that bees are dying from a variety of factors; pesticides, drought, habitat destruction, nutrition deficit, air pollution, and climate change.

Though many of these causes are interrelated, the bottom line is that humans are largely responsible for the two most prominent causes: pesticides and habitat loss.

Let's look a six ways we can help reverse the bee's recent demise. 

Honeybees feed on the flowers from nearby crops and ornamental plants, and it is vital that these are not coated in pesticides that could weaken the hive. Organic farming is the overarching new policy trend that will stabilize human food production, preserve wild habitats, and protect the bees. The nation of Bhutan has led the world in adopting a 100% organic farming policy, while eight European countries have followed suit and banned particular pesticides and genetically modified crops to help revive bee numbers.

Ensure your fruit and vegetables are organically and locally grown if possible, and that you are not using any pesticides in your own garden …even if those weeds do look unsightly on the driveway!

Like human hotels, by building a bee hotel, you’ll be supplying accommodation, refreshment, and even breakfast for bees. Follow this step-by-step guide on how to build and where to put a bee hotel.

If possible, recycle and reuse scrap pieces of wood or furniture, plastic bottles, and old garden canes for your bee hotel. If you have nothing at home, visiting your local waste tip to source your materials. 

Planting for pollinators and rewild your garden, allotment, or even balcony will help honeybees immensely. Bees forage from flowers rich in nectar and pollen, the former contains the sugar they require for energy while the latter provides them essential proteins and oils. When flowers are scarce, bees can starve. Use this plant for pollinators guide to discover which plants (flowers, herbs, shrubs, and trees) to grow, and when they flower. Different bees are active throughout the year, so you’ll need flowering plants from spring to winter.

You can make a huge impact on the health of your local ecosystem by starting a beehive. Having your own beehive can help you learn about bee biology, bee ecosystems, and improve the environment around you. Plus, you get the added benefits of bee products such as raw honey and beeswax, as well as the satisfaction and joy derived from working with a hive. Contact your local beekeeping club for more information.

If you’re not ready for a hive of your own, you can indirectly help bees by supporting your local beekeeper. These keepers work hard to nurture their bees and better the local community for bees and humans alike. The easiest way to do this is to buy locally-made honey and beeswax products. Such as soaps, lotions, and candles.

If you’d like a hive but don’t have the time nor space, why not help fund new hive installations? The Honeybee Conservancy in the U.S. and The British Beekeeping Association are working to install stocked honeybee hives and solitary bee homes in communities across the United States and the UK respectively. By sponsoring/adopting a beehive, you aren’t only helping to save the bees, but to improve communities – beehives provide training and learning opportunities for both young and old, and the bees can help improve the local ecosystem. Such sponsorship programs provide bees and equipment to help people safely set up, maintain and observe such on-site bee sanctuaries at schools, community gardens, and green spaces.

Save the bees! But How?

Save the bees! But how? | Brandon Dawson | TEDxDuke

If you’d like to learn more about bees and/or beekeeping we can recommend the following titles:

The Bee Book: Discover the Wonder of Bees and How to Protect Them for Generations to Come (2016) by DK

Beekeeping: Inspiration and Practical Advice for Beginners (National Trust Home & Garden) (2017) by Andrew T. Davies

A World Without Bees (2009) by Alison Benjamin & Brian McCallum

The bee Manual: The Complete Step-by-Step Guide to Keeping Bees (2015) by Claire Waring & Adrain Waring

backyardboss.net - Tips for planting a bee garden at home

Want to learn more about bees & beekeeping? 

Bee communities, both wild and managed, have been declining over the last half century. Here are six easy ways to help save the bees.

Save The Bees

"No Bees, No Honey; No Work, No Money” Proverb

The Iberian Wild Boar (Sus scrofa. castilianus) is a bane of our tree planters, an uncanny forager, an unsung rewilder, and a winner of climate change. 

Wild Boar typically grow to a length of 120cm, a height of 65cm and a weight of 70 – 90kg, but on occasions can reach up to 150kg. Despite their weight, they are agile and can reach speeds of up to 50 kilometers per hour (31 mph) over short distances. They are also excellent swimmers and are renowned among hunters for their intelligence.

What they lack in vision, they make up for in a strong sense of smell and sound, which they use to great effect to detect buried food up to 100m and to evade their predators. They have long thick black hairs on their body and mane, which when faced with danger, they bristle to appear larger and more imposing in front of their adversary.

The wild boar is usually sedentary during the day preferring to move around at night and in the early hours of the morning. They can travel considerable distances from 2 – 15km, normally using the same routes and passes. Except for the older males, which are solitary, wild boars live and roam in close-knit, well-organized groups, also known as sounders of around 20, and are led by sows.

The “Javali” like to live in the “Mata”, the large areas of dense undergrowth that surround our woodlands in Portugal. These were once fields that over the years have become covered in gorse, scrub oaks, broom, brambles, and other bushes.

Wild boars graze throughout the summer and in the autumn gorge on fallen acorns, roots, seeds, fruits, and lay waste to farmers' crops. When the ground is soft, from autumn through to late spring, they like to rootle – turning over clods of earth with their snouts, in search of roots and rhizomes, earthworms, and other invertebrates.

Wild boars are the unsung heroes of rewilding. Their excessive rootling exposes bare soil, allowing pioneer plants and so-called ‘weeds’ to colonise. Soil exposed by rootling is also swiftly colonised by solitary bees, and the over-turned clods of earth kick-start the creation of anthills which, in turn, provide food for local birdlife.

As disappointing as it is to find some of our young trees uprooted by wild boar, we know that this is all part of the intricate workings of a healthy ecosystem. 

Wild boar caught on camera at our oak woodland restoration project.

Wild Boar Camera Trap

The rage of a wild boar is able to spoil more than just one wood.

As a conservationist, it’s rare yet refreshing to say that boars are not in any immediate danger. Their numbers across Europe have been surging as a result of global warming and the large-scale cultivation of maize and rapeseed for biofuel.

Recent warmer winters have reduced the death rate of older boars and of young ones born late in the year. What’s more, the rise in CO2 levels has intensified the sunlight and led trees to produce more acorns and chestnuts – a high-energy delicacy for boars, whose reproduction naturally increases with the amount of food available.

With large areas of agricultural land in Europe devoted to cultivating maize and rapeseed (a fond staple food of the boar), farmers have inadvertently created veritable supermarkets where the boar can gorge themselves protected and unperturbed.

The Iberian Wild Boar is the bane of our tree planters, an uncanny forager, a hero of rewilding, and a winner of climate change. Read on to learn more.

Wild Boar: the Unsung Hero of Rewilding

Scotland's natural world is undeniably beautiful, with its rugged mountains, forested glens and crystal clear lochs. It's no surprise that many people consider Scotland to be one of the most beautiful countries in the world. That's just one of the reasons that Mossy Earth is passionate about protecting Scotland's environment. 

The landscape of the British Isles has undergone centuries of use and misuse. Despite this, there are many reasons for  celebrating and protecting Scotland's natural world. Scotland is still home to rich, biodiverse and rare habitats. The Caledonian Pinewood is the UK's only native conifer forest and home to a diversity of wildlife and plant species, including the extremely rare twinflower. The Celtic Rainforest of Scotland's west coast is home to rare lichen communities, mosses and liverworts. Scotland also has a significant amount of the European (and world) resource of blanket peat bog, a rare habitat that covers much of the Highlands. With the longest coastline of the British Isles, Scotland has a unique opportunity to rewild ocean habitats as well.  

Scotland is a refuge for species that are absent from England, Wales and Ireland and a stronghold for otherwise rare species. Capercaillie and wildcats have been entirely lost from the rest of the United Kingdom, but can still be found in small populations in Scotland. Rare species like the pine marten and red squirrel are thriving in the Caledonian pinewoods that carpet Scottish glens. These forests are also home to the Scottish crossbill, the UK's only endemic bird species. Restoring these vital habitats is vital to bring these species back from the brink and safeguard the future of the UK's iconic wildlife.  

With warming temperatures and extreme weather events more common than ever, Scotland offers an important opportunity to help combat the breakdown of the planet's climate. By planting trees and restoring forests, we can keep carbon stored in trees and out of our atmosphere. Peatland ecosystems are also a hugely efficient carbon sink. Though many peatlands have been actively dried out for exploitation, for example, to plant commercial conifer plantations, re-wetting this important ecosystem will help recapture huge amounts of carbon.

Protecting Scotland's natural world and creating a wilder Scotland doesn't mean removing people from the land. Thanks to the 'right to roam' law, Scotland's landscapes are accessible to everyone and they are enjoyed by an ever-increasing number of people. By restoring ecosystems to their full potential, we can all enjoy a wilder, richer and more vibrant natural world.

Scotland is changing already, for the better. Large-scale habitat restoration projects are underway, species that were eradicated decades ago are reclaiming former ground and more and more people are embracing the vision of a wilder Scotland. There is no better time to join the Scottish rewilding movement and that's why, with your support, Mossy Earth has set out on a mission to rewild Scotland.

Mossy Earth is passionate about protecting Scotland's natural world for a number of reasons. Read on to learn more about these motives.

Rewilding Articles

Saving Scotland's Wildcats

Rewilding Scotland

The Return of European Bison

What Is The Sixth Mass Extinction?

Rewilding Ireland

Rewilding Romania

Rewild Your Garden

Trophic Cascades

Salmon Farming in Scotland

Wildlife in Ireland

Tree Extinction

Vultures in the Douro Valley

Save The Bees

Wild Boar

Protecting Scotland's Natural World

Reasons For Rewilding

What is Rewilding?

Tracking Lynx

Lynx in Britain

Romania's Brown Bears

Nature-Based Tourism

A Review of George Monbiot's Feral