In my opinion, the European bison is one of the ultimate symbols of rewilding, because in places where they have been reintroduced, everything just feels wilder when you turn a corner on the trail. There's this excitement that suddenly there might be a bison there. And the sad, empty forest isn't so sad and empty anymore because this forest giant is back.

The bison is back. This is surely a reason to celebrate and showcase a species that's suffered such a tragic past. For anyone who's been lucky enough to witness them in the flesh, I'm sure you'll understand my giddiness for this an awe-inspiring species. But for those who haven't, I want to share more about my recent encounter with a herd of bison and also take a closer look at their unique story. From their historical decline to recent revival and the controversy surrounding reintroductions, the European Bison is taking a leading role in rewilding the landscape of present day Europe.

Introducing the Mighty Wisent (aka the European Bison)

This gentle giant (not to be confused with the auroch), who roamed the forests and grasslands of Europe for millennia, completely disappeared from the wild at the start of the 20th century. Now with the return of European wilderness the bison is making a comeback as well. 

Their role as keystone species and ecosystem engineers have put them in high demand for rewilding projects and they are being reintroduced all over the continent. From their last known natural range in Poland all the way to the south of Spain and even to a lonely Danish island in the Baltic sea, these ambitious projects are helping this iconic animal find its place back in the landscape.

I wanted to see firsthand how the bison are settling into one of these rewilding projects so my friend Tom, and I hopped on a train and a ferry boat to the Danish island of Bornholm in the Baltic Sea, home to a small herd of bison.

Our first night camping out in the wild left us soaked to the bone but eagerly anticipating what we would find the next day. In the meantime, here's a bit about how the European bison compares to its American cousin and their impact on the landscape.

Many people are only familiar with the American Bison (Bison bison or colloquially known as Buffalo) which in fact is very similar to its European cousin (Bison bonasus). However, the American bison is on average slightly heavier and favours grazing while the european bison is slightly taller. In addition to grazing, it also browses trees and shrubs.

These animals are really impressive, an adult male can measure up to 2.9 metres in length, about 1.9 metres in height, weighing about 800 kilos. However, it is the comparatively smaller females that lead the herd by deciding where to graze with males having more of a satellite position focused on protection.

Believe it or not, the role they play in their ecosystem dwarfs even their size. 

As keystone species and ecosystem engineers, they create habitats for a variety of species by browsing, grazing, trampling and rolling on the ground and the undergrowth, as well as debarking and knocking down trees and of course the sheer scale of their dung. 

All of this activity allows for pioneer plants to settle in the newly opened areas creating a biodiversity-rich mosaic of habitats for various grasses and flowers, insects, small mammals, birds and even other grazers.

As me and Tom made our way into the 200ha enclosure many of these impacts were visible and then a thought popped into my head: what are bison doing here in the middle of the Baltic? So I think it is time we answer that question by looking at the bizarre history of this species.

Based on archaeological evidence, we know that their historic range went from the north of Spain all the way to Western Siberia. Their initial population numbers are not known as they were gradually wiped out over millennia by human presence and changes in the climate, but based on their large range, it's estimated to have been in the 100s of thousands at a minimum.

They were around in Roman times but by the 15th century Bison had disappeared from much of their range. At the start of the 20th century, only 2 populations remained - one in Białowieża and another in the Northern part of the Caucasus mountains. In Białowieża they managed to survive due to the protection of the grand dukes and kings of the Polish-Lithuanian commonwealth and later by the Russian tsars. This was not a particularly self-less endeavour, they simply loved to hunt them and prohibited anyone else from doing so. In the Caucasus mountains, they probably survived due to the sheer remoteness of the population there.

Then during World War 1, German troops shot 600 bison in Białowieża and they verged on the brink of extinction. The last wild Polish bison was killed in 1921 and the last wild bison in western Caucasus was killed in 1927 making the species extinct in the wild. At this point, there were about 50 individuals left scattered across various zoos.

It could be said the recovery effort began with the International Society for the Preservation of the Wisent, which was founded in 1923. Over the years this organisation had some dubious patrons such as Herman Göring, the second most powerful man in Hitler’s Nazi Germany. These initial efforts helped start a breeding programme and led to the creation of the European Bison Pedigree Book, which has tracked every living European Bison since then. 

However, the real recovery story is a Polish one. In 1952 after the success of the breeding programme, the first two bison were released back into the wild forests of Białowieża. Ever since the herd has steadily grown in size. By the start of this century, their numbers had only climbed to about 2,800 individuals. Compare that with the recovery of the American bison to about 500,000 and it puts it into perspective.

Renewed interest in the species has meant growth rates of the overall population have increased to about 15% per year. This has been accomplished above all in Poland but also by a network of small ambitious projects which receive Polish bison to start their own semi-wild herds. To date, they have been reintroduced to about 20 countries. This is how they eventually got to an island in the Baltic sea. 

When we asked bison expert Yvonne Kemp, Lead Ecologist at the European Bison Conservation Center of Spain, for a picture of current populations she mentioned how in 2020, the European bison moved from Vulnerable to Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, an indication it's doing better. She also explained that the current population size is expected to reach 10,000. There were some large herds present in Ukraine, Chernobyl being one of the places, so it's unclear what exactly has happened to them there. It's thought that close to 7,000 of the overall population are living in nature (free or semi-free).

It's places just like Bornholm in Denmark that are the example of how the European bison is being brought back through a network of well linked small scale projects. And these small scale projects do more than just help spread the bison, they can help educate people and get them excited about wilderness coming back. 

And after a bit more searching we finally spotted something in between the trees. It was really impressive to see this big animal simply standing there in the forest. I think the image doesn’t do justice to their size which is quite intimidating and then led me to think hang on, am I in danger?

Understandably, this question is one of the most common concerns about bison reintroductions in Europe. Rather than rely on an assortment of hearsay or sensationalised media reports on human-bison encounters, let’s try and answer that by looking at some research.

A paper published by polish researchers tested how the bison would react to human approach and also gathered data on the various cases of conflict between humans and bison through interviews. Their first experiment was to approach the bison and measure their 'flight initiation distance'. This is the distance at which bison react to humans by running away. The mean distance for this was 77±46 m which is a pretty wide range. However, the mean critical distance of attacks was 21±2 m which is much narrower. They also noted that most attacks took the form of a short chase preceded by warning signs. Goring was observed in only 26% of those attacks and resulted in no fatalities.

The overarching conclusion for me is simple, keep your distance and you will be fine. In Bornholm, they recommended 100m which makes sense.

The first natural place for the bison to expand to are the larger national parks and protected areas that are found within their historic range. A great example is a project run by Rewilding Europe and WWF Romania in the Southern Carpathians, where since 2014 they reintroduced 80 bison which have grown to more than 100 individuals in 2022. In the same region, our partners Foundation Conservation Carpathia, have started a herd in the Fagaras mountains, in the area of our healing clear-cuts reforestation project in the Southern Carpathians, with the ambition of creating a large wild population there as well.

There are many other similar places in their range and this is where we can expect to see large herds with significant numbers. But what about the other smaller areas in Germany, The Netherlands, Denmark or Spain? This is where our work with Yvonne comes in. 

Tracking Europe's most southerly population of bison

Here at Mossy Earth, we have a small project in which we sponsored some equipment to help monitor bison reintroductions in Spain. By understanding how the bison behave, we hope this data will help future reintroductions but also help in the bigger quest of figuring out how the bison can fit into the human landscape.

The same applies to the area I visited in Bornholm where they are undergoing a trial period to understand whether they can remove the fences from the current enclosure.

Back in Bornholm myself and Tom eventually found the majority of the herd. Along the way we saw broken trees, dung and plenty of open meadows, the classical signs of bison doing their thing. We even got to see these little birds pick parasites from their fur.

As the biggest wild animal in Europe, their impact as ecosystem engineers is beyond impressive - a reason to be proud of the efforts to restore bison so far. But we will have to see how far, we as humans, will let them come back into their role.

 Bison on the island of Bornholm in the Baltic Sea & at Mossy Earth's rewilding project in Southern Spain.

The Return of the Bison: Europe’s Largest Wild Animal

Ever wondered what it's like to see European bison up close? Find out about my trip to a Danish island to meet this striking species, plus learn about their history and more.

Rewilding Diaries: An encounter with the mighty European bison

Witnessing the comeback of this striking species up close

Rewilding Diaries: An encounter with the mighty European Bison

Salmon are one of the most recognisable and iconic fish species in the world. Their epic life journey takes them from their birthplace high up in the rivers all the way to the ocean and back to spawn and eventually die. 

In the process, they support a multitude of other wildlife and ecosystems making them an all important keystone species.

Unfortunately, this wonderful cycle faces many threats and wild populations are declining rapidly. 

Which is why in this article, we want to take a look at the Atlantic Salmon. More specifically the Scottish population, to better understand the threats they face and what we are doing to rewild their rivers to help this iconic fish thrive once more.

Salmo salar is one of the 9 main species of Salmon that occur in two genera. The Oncorhynchus genus in the Pacific and the Salmo genus in the Atlantic. 

As the name suggests, it is the only species of salmon that lives in the Atlantic Ocean. It is also the one that lives the longest, up to about 13 years, and the largest, growing to about 1.2 to 1.5 meters in length - or about the size of the average a woman from Guatemala!

The main protagonist: Salmo salar - the Atlantic Salmon 

The lure and intrigue that makes the Atlantic salmon so fascinating is its life cycle. It transforms from a minute, vulnerable fish to a seafaring species capable of undergoing perilous journeys thousands of miles to spawn back at the same place it hatched from itself. These are the 6 stages of the Atlantic salmon’s remarkable life cycle.

Salmon start their lives in early winter as small fertilised eggs hidden by the females in the gravel of the river, generally a few feet under the surface. Depending on water temperature, eggs will usually hatch in early spring.

The young, small fish (just 10mm long) called ‘alevins’ hatch with a bright orange yolk sac attached to them. They stay in the gravel for a few weeks as they absorb the sac and the nutrition it provides. In late spring, the juvenile fish is ready to embark on the next stage of its life's journey in the river.

Now measuring about 3cm in length, the ‘fry’ start hunting small insects and aquatic plants until they grow to become ‘Parr’. At this tiny size, fry are prey to other fish, birds, and insects. It is at this stage that they are most vulnerable.

As Parr, the fish will have visible markings on their sides to distinguish them. The young fish is not yet ready to venture out to sea though and will live in the river for another 2 to 3 years. The length of time spent in the river will depend on water temperature and food availability.

When they reach about 12cm in length, they become what is known as ‘smolts’ where they take on a physiological transformation to adapt and survive at sea. Smolts will continue to grow and become more silver and gradually begin to leave the rivers for the sea in late spring until early summer.

By this point they are generally considered to be adults or ‘post-smolts’ when they have commenced one of nature's greatest migrations at sea. 

While not much is known about the migration pathways of these young adults, we do know they generally unite and move in schools when going to deep sea feeding areas. 

For the Scottish salmon population, most fish will feed in the Norwegian Sea and Southwest of Greenland. The ones that go to Norway (named ‘Grilse’) tend to return after about 1 year while those that head to Greenland (known as ‘multi-sea-winter salmon') will stay at sea for 3 to 4 years and therefore grow larger feeding in a marine environment.

In the case of Scotland, ‘spring salmon’ have been recorded returning to Scottish waters between January and June. However, they can return at any time of the year meaning they're a constant part of a functioning ecosystem and the reason why they are considered to be so important for Scottish biodiversity.

How do Atlantic salmon find their way home? 

After their life at sea, Atlantic salmon perform an extraordinary navigational feat by returning back to their native river to spawn a new generation to follow in their steps. They do this using their 'olfactory memory' by marking scents in their memory along their journey out to sea as young adults. 

This incredible return journey to their birthplace can take the salmon over a year to complete posing many challenges and testing their perseverance and strength to the limits. The fish face an assortment of predators from dolphins, seals, and birds. Once they have reached the coast many will stop feeding, maybe to never feed again, while their kidney and other vital organs adjust to freshwater once more. Their sole focus becomes preserving their energy for the rest of the journey. 

The long and arduous journey of the Atlantic salmon ends when they reach their spawning grounds in the Scottish Highlands, where heroically after spawning around 90-95% will die in a behaviour referred to as ‘semelparity’. 

Sadly, for many Atlantic salmon this natural life cycle has stopped playing out. Before we discuss why and what can be done, here is why the Atlantic salmon is so important to the ecosystem.

Why is it important to protect Atlantic salmon and their migration patterns?

Through their unique ability to live both in fresh and salt water and by travelling such distances, salmon act as a convoy of nutrients connecting marine and riparian ecosystems.

In the ocean they are an important middle link in the food-chain. They prey on small fish, such as herring, and are hunted by a variety of larger animals such as orcas, dolphins, tuna, sharks and seals.

In the rivers they are hunted by birds and mammals, such as the iconic relationship between the pacific salmon and the bears that hunt them. This of course, also used to happen in Scotland before humans pushed bears to extinction 1500 years ago.

Because salmon move up the river and die, they deposit marine nutrients in the soil around spawning streams which can have higher levels of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus than those of commercial grade fertiliser.

Healthy populations of Atlantic salmon improve the quality of life through Scottish rivers and which is why they are known as an 'indicator species'.

Despite being one of nature’s best navigators, undertaking such an epic journey comes with many natural and man-made threats and obstacles. 

Returning salmon face a bombardment of dangers not only from lurking predators but also rushing waterfalls and crucially, artificial obstacles like dams.

A lot of Scotland's rivers are dammed for hydroelectric power and that means that a lot of the historical spawning sites are no longer accessible to salmon.

In addition, it seems that the issue can run both ways which is the case in the Kyle of Sutherland, a river estuary that separates Sutherland from Ross-shire in the Scottish Highlands.

Hannah Kirkland, Conservation Biologist, Mossy Earth

Salmon that manage to make it above this hydroelectric dam get stuck there basically, they cant migrate back to sea, they get re-routed to another catchment that is practically landlocked which means the surviving adults that spawn above the dam and any juveniles that are born aren't ever able to make it back to sea once they get above this dam. 

Through a partnership with the Kyle of Sutherland Fisheries Trust, we are supporting efforts to tag salmon with acoustic tags to track their behaviour and movements.

This data will be invaluable in providing us with a clear picture of where the salmon are facing difficulties and how we can help create better connectivity in the river.

This project forms part of our mission at Mossy Earth to make Scottish rivers wilder. We run a rewilding membership where our members and partners such as inlumi, provide the funding to set up a range of rewilding and reforestation projects across Scotland and Europe.

Another significant threat comes from deforestation and climate change.

In the face of climate change Scotland's rivers are warming which can be extremely detrimental to Salmon. It places them under a great deal of stress and at certain temperatures it can be lethal to Salmon.

The areas where Salmon spawn are supposed to be surrounded by trees that thrive on the moist soil and nutrient abundance. These forests help shade the water and keep it cool while also injecting additional nutrients in the stream and attracting all sorts of insects that young fry and parr can feed on.

Unfortunately many of Scotland's river banks have been barren for decades which has accelerated the decline of local salmon populations.

To help fight this we have focused a lot of our reforestation efforts on river banks and hope to expand this to cover as many miles of river as possible.

By planting trees here we are not only helping to sequester carbon and create important terrestrial habitat but we can also improve the health of Scotland's rivers to safeguard the wildlife that depends on it.

We are planting a mix of native tree species including the iconic aspen which has disappeared from large parts of Scotland. You can read more about this project here.

Salmon also face many direct human threats such as overfishing and Salmon farms.

Captive salmon populations can escape and mix with the wild populations which leads to genetic erosion as many of the captive fish are genetically modified or at least not very genetically diverse.

Another issue is that they breed salmon closely together which leads to outbreaks of sea lice and disease that then spread to wild populations.

To help fight this we have started a project in Ireland. Together with our partners Arctic Stone, we are supporting the monitoring of sea lice in various rivers which is a crucial first step in assessing the extent of this crisis. 

We hope to increase the size of this network in both Ireland and Scotland and eventually put this data to action to try and improve the situation.

River and marine ecosystems are often forgotten and suffer from a lot of environmental degradation. That is something we would like to change which is why we have set up these three projects. This is also why we are working on bringing back the lost kelp forests of Europe. You can learn all about that project in this video.

Why we need forests to save the Scottish Salmon

They are what's known as an 'anadromous' species, meaning they ascend up rivers from the sea to breed.

Despite high mortality rates after spawning, some Atlantic salmon make it back to sea to feed and return again. This isn't the case for pacific salmon.

A female salmon that has completed her migration 3 times will have swum more than 18,000 miles, survived many predators, and laid around 20,000 eggs! 

Many Atlantic salmon will die within metres of the exact spot they themselves hatched from.

Discover the incredible life of Scotland's most icon fish and how trees can help protect them.

The extraordinary life cycle, threats and solutions of the Atlantic salmon

Europe’s very own species of bison (Bison bonasus), without a doubt one of the icons of today’s rewilding movement, almost slid into complete extinction a hundred years ago. Thankfully, catastrophe was averted at the last minute, and the species’ conservation has since proven a success story. However, challenges still remain.

Read on to discover the most recent findings of bison reintroductions by the European Bison Conservation Centre of Spain, with the support of Mossy Earth.

The comeback of Europe’s largest living land animal

The European bison is the heaviest terrestrial animal still to be found in Europe. Adult males can reach 1.88 meters in height at their distinctive hump and weigh well over a staggering 800 kilograms. A wild species by nature, though calm in appearance. 

The last of these gentle giants were hunted to extinction in the wild after struggling to survive due to loss of habitat. The importance of captive animals cannot be overstated in the case of the European bison, also known as wisent. The sole survivors of the entire species made it possible that we still have Europe’s bison today. 

Dedicated conservationists started to bring back bison to the wild in the early 1950s. Ever since, due to continued support and additional reintroductions, bison numbers have been on the rise. 

This year the global European bison population is expected to climb beyond the milestone of 10,000 individuals!

Mossy Earth Co-founder Duarte, documented his encounter when he went to see these magnificent beasts up close at a rewilding site on a lonely Danish island, which you can read about here.

The past decade has been monumental for European bison as their numbers doubled due to committed conservation efforts. Meanwhile, the charismatic species has been able to step right into the growing rewilding movement, which has further paved the way for them back into people’s minds. In parallel, the role in nature of these large herbivores has become more and more a topic of interest. 

Years of experiences and studies in different landscape settings have shifted the beliefs in what natural conditions European bison are able to prosper in. In essence, science is driven by the same power as nature itself: evolution. 

Equipped with a broader understanding of the species needs in nature, parts of the continent became available for a possible return of the massive mammal. 

Bison are big and live in herds so no doubt they need space, but perhaps what they really need is a fair chance from humans. Fortunately, in the last few years, conservation organisations and land managers have given them just this and welcomed bison to their areas.

Setting the scene of the bison’s release

One such exciting endeavour recently took place in the wild Andalusian region of Spain, right in front of my eyes. 

In autumn 2020, bison from different localities in the species’ stronghold of Poland were released into the private property ‘El Encinarejo’, loosely translated to ‘The Oak tree valley’. The roughly 1,000 hectare fenced finca directly neighbours the Sierra de Andújar Natural Park. Its rolling landscape offers sweeping views over this characteristic Mediterranean treasure that has been one of the prime homelands of the highly endangered Iberian lynx. Here, native Stone pine trees alternate with evergreen Holm oaks. There is an abundance of Olive and Strawberry tree. 

In summer, the air fills with aromas of Lavender and Rosemary. The fairly open oak canopy gives way to grasslands that try to hug their distinctive trunks, only to be stopped there and then by the shrubs of Mastic. Here, you can find a well-varied herbaceous community counting over forty species.

Besides being home to the world’s most endangered cat, this is the scene where the Spanish imperial eagle as well as the Cinereous vulture soar the sky. These two impressive birds are included on Spain’s endangered species list too. This multifunctional, half-open terrain that goes by the name dehesa provides refuge for species like the European rabbit and Red-legged partridge, both important in their own rights but also fundamentally vital as a food source for a range of predators. 

This environment is judged as a Special Area of Conservation by the European Union. Beautiful blue feathered Iberian magpies abound here. Little owls covered in camouflage give off piercing stares. Acrobatic European bee-eaters arrive in spring, as Eurasian golden orioles begin singing their songs. Both birds paint the landscape with their colourful plumage. 

On ground level, a European badger waddles through the night. You can stumble upon a resting Horseshoe whip snake, or a colourful Ocellated lizard on guard, or any of the smaller species basking in the sun on a rocky outcrop as this is also the land of the lizards. This is the Sierra de Andújar.

Introducing a species like European bison into a new area is not a process that happens overnight. It is the result of a prolonged preparatory phase and includes obtaining all the relevant permissions. Due to its climatic conditions -dry, hot summers being the most obvious- this part of Spain at times might feel a harsh environment. 

Starting such a pioneering project in the most southern location for bison in European nature comes with responsibility. The wellbeing of the bison as well as the already present inhabitants of the area is a high priority. 

We put together a detailed monitoring programme to follow the adaptation of the newcomers and their impact on what was already living there. Expectations needed to be examined, assumptions to be addressed. So, we started to study and see for ourselves.

After a lengthy journey by truck covering some 3,000 kilometres, we welcomed 18 bison and cautiously observed how they were individually coping with the newfound freedom, and if they bonded well with each other. 

Some mature females were equipped with GPS collars, and camera traps were set up at various locations throughout the territory. This enabled us to gain detailed insights into the whereabouts of the bison, their activity patterns, and direct or indirect species interactions. 

Mossy Earth kindly supported these monitoring activities by providing funding for equipment. Cameras and drones captured additional footage to verify impact on the landscape, specifically what had been due to foraging behaviour and treading. 

To top it off, faecal matter of bison and fellow residents Red deer and Fallow deer was collected every month enabling a direct diet comparison. 

So, what did we learn from their first year at the Sierra de Andújar? 

First and foremost, a plethora of findings shows the bison herd is doing fine. In the very first months some health challenges had to be addressed but with proper monitoring in place and adequate action, this was merely part of the adaptation process. 

The unfamiliar bison quickly grouped up and formed a new herd hierarchy. They are highly social animals. 

The summer of 2021 was their first southern summer and observations and accompanying GPS data show they can deal with the high temperatures. They tend to take it easy when over 40 degrees and at or below 0, but who wouldn’t?

Soon we saw Eurasian magpies surrounding the bison. Smart as they are, they sensed there was something to get from the big beasts. As they often do here with Red deer, they snatch flies while riding their backs or go into a more detailed investigation of abdomen or ears of the host for a tick treat. Though behaving quite skittish when observed, camera trap footage showed these birds treading the bison this way. Eurasian jackdaws performed the same trick. 

The passing of a bison gives back to nature too, another subject of study. Camera traps on deceased bison revealed several major species profiting from the loss of life. Golden eagle, Griffon vulture, Black vulture, Red fox and of course black-and-white magpie have all taken advantage. The Egyptian mongoose also seemed to take notice.

Ever since the days after the release of the bison, we have witnessed dung beetles feeding on their fresh faeces. A recent report by IUCN states that no less than twenty percent of Mediterranean dung beetle species are threatened. One of the major reasons is contaminated dung of livestock due to veterinary products trying to keep livestock healthy, while destroying life that depends on uncontaminated faeces. 

Bison dung however is free of pesticides. Up close and personal observations have revealed an abundance of nutrients on offer. Different fly species lay their eggs there, resulting in a baby boom of larvae. Birds once again join in, this time to feed on the grubs in the faeces. 

Whenever the bison leave a heap of poo behind, a bunch of magpies meticulously goes through it to peck away at the goodies. They are not the only ones, Eurasian blackbirds do exactly the same, though in a more private manner.

Mostly a grazing species, bison use other forms of vegetation to complement their diet year-round. Taking bites from leaves, branches and bark is well known, and they go nuts for fruits like acorns. 

We followed the bison and found that during their first weeks of exploring the property, they debarked a small number of trees. However, months later the vegetation was regenerating. 

What turned out to be a far more important source of food for the herd was Mastic. This shrubby, evergreen tree grows basically everywhere in the region. Inhabitants like Red deer were already fondly foraging on it. With known health benefits for ruminants, it is not a surprise that bison were quick to discover their fancy for this foliage too. 

This significant use by bison seems to be a first, to my knowledge it has not been reported before.

Another area of particular interest concerned the wallowing behaviour of the bison, which involves them rolling around in a kind of ‘dust bath’. What does this behaviour do to the environment? Inspection via observations, camera traps and drone revealed the bison tend to do so where the soil is already exposed, like dirt roads and fire breaks. The available sandy surface is perfect for daily grooming and resting. Camera trap footage shows Red deer and Fallow deer used these wallow sites for the same reason. However, since bison weigh way more than any deer, wallowing by bison makes the spot far more prone to staying open from vegetation. 

During the driest time of year, wildlife become more restricted to the major water sources present throughout the area. This is where we set up some extra eyes as well. Obviously, the spots are usually drunk by all ungulates and, if lynx live near, by them too. But that’s not the only behaviour we recorded. 

Bathing is the next best thing to do. Entire wild boar families go wild during mud bathing. Red deer, including their young, also exhibited this behaviour. Bison did not use the water sources to bathe. 

While bison are large animals with a capacity to significantly shape their landscape, soils get impacted in various and species-specific ways not just by the hoofed mammals present but by burrowing species like rabbit and badger too.

One and a half years in, the bison continue to coexist calmly with lynx, rabbit, partridge, and other creatures big and small. From their perspective, bison are just a bunch of big furry animals, in a land where once a legion of cattle wandered. 

Interactions are plentiful and consist mostly of passing by. Nowhere else in nature do you have a chance to spot the spectacular Iberian lynx, Spanish imperial eagle, Cinereous vulture, and European bison all in one place. Besides being fascinating to see, they share a story of vulnerability. Wildlife watching doesn’t just enable people to enjoy the stunning scenery and marvel at these animals, it also helps to promote the importance of these species and their role in the natural world. 

From an ecological point of view, it is too early to make bold statements. But, we have gained initial insights into the bison’s biology and their ecological role in Andalusian nature. Data suggests the current herd of seventeen bison have not had any lasting negative impact on the more than 900 hectares they roam. Extended monitoring continues to provide a lot of information, which increases the overall understanding of the species.

Halfway through 2021, the very first of a new generation was born at the Sierra. Being born and raised here will make offspring best adapted to the environment. One calf at a time, the bison is bound to profit from the protection that is being provided to them, here and beyond. 

From an ecological perspective, when bison return or arrive to a new landscape, it is not only their grazing and browsing impacts, or the way they wallow, that is important, they play a substantial role in the circle of life, both when alive and after.  

One can argue that the European bison doesn’t belong in this landscape as no fossil remains have been found (yet) in this part of the continent. However, instead of looking for arguments against action, you could roll up your sleeves and start doing something bold and ambitious, as we have at ‘El Encinarejo’, keeping a close eye on things with effective monitoring. I believe in the latter, as I believe in the power of nature, which in wild Europe, includes the almighty European bison. 

How the return of the Bison will transform Europe

Discover expert's firsthand findings of European bison reintroductions in Spain. Learn how this magnificent beast is impacting the ecosystem 1.5 years on.

Unleashing the Power of Bison in Spain

How the European bison relates to bugs, birds, and beyond.

Rewilding our land has many clear benefits, however, lesser-known marine rewilding may provide even more. Is this the key to reaching our carbon neutrality targets?

What comes to mind when you read the word "rewilding?"

A country overgrown with flora? Bears and wolves, casually roaming our uncultivated spaces once again? Or maybe an image of a rewilded community, partly clothed and feral?

Terrestrial ecosystem rewilding has received a lot of attention among environmental communities over the past few years due to its powerful abilities to: 

Sequester large amounts of carbon from the atmosphere

Support wildlife in its adaptation to climate change 

Provide economic opportunities among communities

... However, land-based rewilding isn’t the only form we have. 

In fact, there’s an option that arguably holds more potential for climate and environmental recovery and restoration, from a source that covers 71% of our planet’s surface: our oceans.

Marine Ecosystem Rewilding: The Power of Our Oceans

While protecting and restoring marine ecosystems comes with many clear benefits such as enhanced biodiversity, coastal protection, and increased fish stocks and species, its ability to store carbon has been overshadowed by its land-based kin, forests. 

However, in the UK alone, some 500,000 km2 of shelf seas are estimated to store 205 million tonnes of carbon, which is roughly 50 million tonnes more than what all of the UK’s standing forests can hold. 

This long-term carbon storage solution via seaweeds, seabed sediments, salt marshes, and seagrass beds is called blue carbon. 

This blue carbon rewilding process can bring our planet into an ecological state of equilibrium in a few ways.

As mentioned above, the carbon storage abilities of blue carbon far surpass the benefits of terrestrial rewilding processes. In fact, the UK’s seagrass and salt marsh beds sequestration abilities are predicted to hold a carbon storage equivalent of 1,000 - 2,000 km2 of tropical forests. 

The vast array of ecosystems - from mangrove forests and seagrass meadows, to individual species such as whales, invertebrates and seaweed - can absorb CO2 just like our rainforest ecosystems. 

Just three of the UK's three blue carbon habitats – mudflats, salt marshes, and sands – are estimated to trap somewhere between "10.5 and 60.1 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent per year", as stated by the Office for National Statistics. 

This makes terrestrial habitats’ total CO2 sequestration of 28 million tonnes per year seem second-rate. 

By solely focusing on the UK’s three blue carbon systems, the amount of CO2 removed could provide an asset value of between £742 million and £4.259 billion. 

Not only that, but encouraging more rewilding projects by coastal communities can generate new business opportunities and income for locals and the community at large, building on the exciting concept of a nature-based economy. 

It’s no secret countries are lagging (way) behind on our Paris Agreement targets. Greta Thunberg’s speech at the 2021 Austrian World Summit says it all. 

However, arguably, part of this lag isn't because we don't care, but because of how our brains work. 

As seen in a Harvard Business Review article, research on construal level theory suggests humans consider things or ideas that are psychologically distant from them in an abstract manner. For instance, when climate change-induced weather disasters happen in faraway places, most people treat it as an abstract concept – which is less motivating than specific or present situations. 

However, for coastal communities, marine life and coastal degradation is a real and present threat. By helping communities rewild their aquatic ecosystems, we're not only empowering communities to take charge of their future, but to mitigate 1.83 billion tonnes of CO2 through rewilded marine ecosystems – 5% of the emissions savings we must make on a global level. 

Increased Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services

Marine ecosystem rewilding can also regenerate a range of ecosystem services such as:

Protecting coastal towns and communities from inevitable rising sea levels

Encourage rewilded ecosystems that act as nurseries for fish species that can be sustainably fished and consumed by locals

Serve as carbon storage (in massive quantities)

Seaweeds, in particular, are incredibly powerful when it comes to enhanced biodiversity and ecosystem services. Kelp, the largest seaweed, is a total powerhouse. 

This large, brown seaweed creates magical underwater forests offering fish habitats while cleaning the water and sequestering carbon. 

Mossy Earth’s Kelp Restoration 3-part Project tackles disappearing seaweed forests head-on. With help from their partner, SeaForester, they’ve begun Portugal’s seaweed forests restoration trial by using the “spore bag” seeding technique. 

While the term “rewilding” has endured its fair share of criticism from farmers fearing loss of land and income from species introductions, marine ecosystem rewilding arguably holds less of a threat to locals’ lifestyles. 

When done hand-in-hand with local communities as stakeholders, rewilding our blue carbon stores offers enormous benefits and, therefore, has the potential for projects that bring people together.

Our oceans are a mess, to say the least. 

Out of 500 million km2, only 13% of our deep blue waters are considered marine wilderness. From commercial fishing techniques to bottom trawling and dredging, these wild waters have been stripped of life. Not only that, but the processes involved are re-suspending water carbon, reducing our ocean’s ability to absorb more CO2 while potentially releasing its stores into the atmosphere. 

So, we have a reason and a method to remedy this problem – what’s holding us back?

The role of these blue carbon solutions to support our climate battle is unrecognised by many governments. While some governments acknowledge marine carbon stores and their importance, no steadfast commitments to protect and restore blue carbon have been made. 

Is it because it's out of sight, out of mind? 

Or is it because there isn’t enough noise or pressure around the topic to create that sense of urgency governments need in order to act?

Whatever the reason, as with most pressing environmental causes, it lands on the people to bring these issues forward. 

The truth is our oceans hold the power to reverse climate change. And with more individuals offering a hands-on approach, we can help unleash this power in our lifetime. 

Here are four steps you can take to make this marine magic happen. 

4 Steps to Support Marine Ecosystem Rewilding Projects

Step 1: Urge your local MPs to scale ocean rewilding for blue carbon and biodiversity

Check out this site to find the MP, MSP, MS, or MLA in your area (in the UK), then click on their name to view their contact info. You can write to them, call them – however you feel you communicate best. 

If you decide to email your MP, you can save your email as a template and send it to friends and family to fill out to gain more support. 

Here are some points to bring up in your conversation:

As outlined by the Blue Carbon Report, our governments must make at least 30% of our oceans Highly Protected Marine Areas (hpMPAs) and 10% Fully Protected Marine Protected Areas (FPMPAs) by the year 2030.

Our governments must also provide towing-free zones to recover our marine ecosystems and recovery of fish and shellfish.

Implementing blue carbon protection and restoration into your government’s environmental management and climate mitigation policies is key - mention this to your MP. 

Demand investment into nature-led marine management systems (for instance, removing artificial sea defences to encourage natural processes). 

Step 2: Reach out to a local marine ecosystem rewilding project

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