The following articles will give you a well rounded overview to what is meant by reforestation.

We have a range of reforestation projects that include the restoration of illegal clear cuts, areas destroyed by wildfires & former agriculture lands devoid of biodiversity.

Reforestation Projects

The following articles will give you a well rounded overview to what is meant by rewilding.

All of our rewilding projects have as their main aim to maximise the restoration of wilderness and the promotion of biodiversity.

Rewilding Projects

Restore wildlife habitats and support biodiversity.

In Croatia, there is a huge network of submerged caves that is recognized as a global hotspot for subterranean biodiversity. The animals that have adapted to live here are unlike anything you may find above the surface. The olm, for example, is a blind cave salamander that can live up to a century and survive for a decade without feeding. The specific cave we are focusing on is also home to the world’s only species of cave freshwater sponge and it provides habitat for the last remaining population of Croatian Dace, a species of small fish that is thought to be on the verge of extinction. The cave’s entrance has been used as a waste disposal site for centuries and the accumulated pollution is threatening the cave animals that live there. For this project, we are partnering with expert cave biologists and cave divers from the Croatian Institute for Biodiversity to plan an operation to remove the most dangerous materials from the cave. The goal is to safeguard the future of these unique species and prevent further contamination of an important source of drinking water. 

Protecting the Croatian "Baby Dragon" and its Underwater Caves

This project will fund an operation to remove waste from a cave that provides habitat for threatened cave animals. About 16 cubic m3 of solid waste have accumulated inside the cave. This includes plastic, metal, rubber, wood and domestic appliances. The waste that is currently above the water level will be removed by a team of local cavers with the aid of ropes and winches if necessary. For submerged waste, a more complex operation involving cave divers will be required to bring these large objects to the surface.

Funding will be used to pay for the food and transport of volunteer cavers and cave divers during the operation and to purchase the equipment needed to carry it out. Given the amount of waste, the intervention is likely to take several days. Even so, it is unlikely that we will be able to remove all the waste in which case the objects deemed more likely to be contaminating the water will be removed first. Once removed, the waste will be transported to an appropriate recycling plant by truck. 

Sir David Attenborough in Attenborough's Story of Life, BBC Earth

The olm is reliant on clean pure water and water pollution is one of its main threats

Learn More About the Context Behind this Project

The Dinaric arc is a cave biodiversity hotspot

The Dinaric arc in South-Eastern Europe is a region characterised by stunning landscapes, from impressive mountain peaks to cascading turquoise waterfalls and a wild Mediterranean coast. Easier to miss however is the fact that this region hosts the largest network of subterranean rivers in Europe and that it is a global hotspot for cave biodiversity. Because it is difficult for cave-adapted animals to move between caves many species have a very narrow distribution and some exist only in a single cave.

The Rupečica-Šmitovo cave system, which is the one we are focusing on, provides habitat for some very interesting species. The olm is probably the most famous among them. It’s a blind cave salamander that can live up to a century and survive for a decade without feeding. It is among the most evolutionarily distinct amphibians known to science meaning that there is nothing else like it on earth. It is also one of the 10 species that David Attenborough would select to be saved from extinction if he had to choose. Another interesting species found here is the Croatian dace a small freshwater fish species that rely on this habitat to sustain its last remaining population. And a final species that needs mentioning is the Ogulin cave sponge. This is the world’s only known species of cave-dwelling freshwater sponge and it is known only from a few caves around this area. 

Sadly the entire community of organisms in this cave is under threat. This is especially concerning if we consider that many of them are at considerable risk of global extinction. 

The olm, Proteus anguinus, is classified as vulnerable to extinction, mainly due to the threat posed by water pollution and cave habitat degradation throughout its range 

The Croatian dace, Telestes polylepis, is classified as critically endangered and appears to be on the verge of extinction with the last small population found inside this cave. 

The cave sponge, Eunapius subterraneus, was previously classified as endangered and exists only in this part of Croatia but more data is needed about its conservation status. 

Like so many others, the entrance of the cave has been used as a waste disposal site for centuries and this has resulted in the accumulation of large amounts of waste. Unless we remove it, toxic chemicals will continue to degrade water quality and once these chemicals enter the cave system through the water they can no longer be physically removed and may continue affecting the ecosystem for a long time. On top of this, the submerged caves in this region provide drinking water for the surrounding area and if they continue being contaminated this could end up having negative health consequences. 

If the world of cave biology intrigues you and you haven’t yet read our article about cave dwelling animals you should check it out! 

If you want to learn more about the backstory of why we think it is important to protect bizarre creatures like the olm you can listen to our podcast episode about Mossy Earth’s “Ugly ones” programme.

The "Ugly" ones rewilding programme | Project notes #1

We are removing toxic waste from a cave in Croatia to help unique animals such as the olm. 

Cave clean up

Removing toxic waste to help unique creatures of the underworld 

Ireland was once the most forested country in Europe. Today it has just 11% tree cover, only 2% of which is native forest. Working with our tree planting partners Hometree our Reforesting Ireland project seeks to reforest and rewild a 60 hectare property in an area that currently has no wild forests.

Tree planter.jpeg

At our Reforesting Ireland project we plant Scarlett willow (Salix alba), goat willow (Salix caprea), grey willow (Salix cinerea), osier willow (Salix viminalis), alder (Alnus glutinosa), downy birch (Betula pubescens), European hornbeam (Carpinus betulus), common hawthorn (Cratageus monogyna), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), rowan (Sorbus aucuparia), holly (Ilex aquifolium), blackthorn (Prunus spinosa), common oak (Quercus robur) and sessile oak (Quercus petraea).

Hen harrier (Circus cyaneus), pine marten (Martes martes), brown hare (Lepus europaeus) are all present in the area. To learn more about these species, head over to our wildlife in Ireland or rewilding Ireland guides. 

The Irish, descendants of the Gaels, which means forest people, have worshipped trees longer than they’ve believed in God.

Centuries of deforestation for agriculture and timber have reduced Ireland’s once extensive native woodlands to small, isolated remnants. Old native woodlands can still to be found in areas of thin soils unsuitable for agriculture, but today, the country is known for its landscape of open, green pastures instead.  

Legend has it that a squirrel could traverse through the tree canopy from the North of Ireland to the far South without ever touching the forest floor.

Sadly, it was these rich woodlands, particularly the robust oaks that were prized by England for the construction of its cathedrals, the reconstruction of London after the Great Fire and its naval fleets between 1600s – 1800s. Large areas of old growth forests were decimated by the English and never replaced.

Ireland's native woodlands are mostly made up of colourful broadleaf trees like oak, ash, alder and birch. A healthy, thriving forest provides vital habitat for a diversity of flora and fauna, including great spotted woodpecker, narrow-leaved helleborine, wood millet, red squirrels and Ireland's rarest native mammal, the pine marten.

In response to legal requirements to reduce carbon emissions, the Irish government is primarily funding the planting of non-native conifer monocultures. These monoculture forests cause soil acidification, create excess sediment in rivers, and are often devoid of wildlife. These lucrative plantations also price small farmers off the land.

Ireland was once the most forested country in Europe, now it's the least! Our Foraois Reforesting Ireland project aims to reverse this trend through native tree planting interventions.

Foraois | Reforesting Ireland

Like many European countries, Spain is undergoing a process of widespread land abandonment. For decades, the landscape in Andalucía has been shaped by grazing by both wild and domestic herbivores. The current trend of abandoning livestock grazing activities and removing livestock from the landscape is having serious consequences for the open and semi-open habitats that many species there thrive on, such as wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and red-legged partridges (Alectoris rufa), important prey species for the endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus). As open areas become dense with vegetation, they also become more at risk of forest fires. The European bison (Bison bonasus), or wisent, is the largest herbivore in Europe and is considered a keystone species, having a profound impact on the landscape through its grazing and trampling behaviour. Listed as Near Threatened on the IUCN red list, their reintroduction to the Spanish landscape could have profound benefits for restoring these vital habitats and supporting the range expansion of the rare European bison. 

Tracking Europe's most southerly population of Bison

In October and November 2020, 18 bison were reintroduced to the El Encinarejo property by the dedicated owners and bison experts at the European Bison Conservation Centre of Spain. This project is intended to act as example to others in Spain of a more sustainable approach to land management and nature and species conservation. Detailed monitoring of the impacts of the bison on the landscape, habitat use, foraging behaviour and species interactions will be carried out to gather this vital information. By demonstrating how European bison behave in a Spanish ecosystem, with minimal human interference, the project hopes to ultimately inspire and inform further reintroductions on large properties in the Andalucian region and beyond. 

To support the project at El Encinarejo to gather the data they need, Mossy Earth is sponsoring the purchase of a GPS collar and three camera traps. The GPS collar will gather detailed data on their movements across the landscape. The camera traps, placed strategically at important sites, such as wallowing sites, where bison repeatedly roll around for grooming purposes, will provide important behavioural data. 

Similar to the North American bison (or American buffalo), the European bison has suffered a dark history at the hands of humans. After decades of over-hunting and habitat loss, only two populations survived in Europe by the 20th century. One was in the remote Northern Caucasus Mountains of Russia and another was in Poland’s Białowieża Forest, where a herd of around 600 bison remained. The last wild bison were killed during World War I and the Russian revolution, but thankfully a few individuals survived in captivity. Efforts to reintroduce bison back to the wild began in the 1950s in Poland and thanks to further captive breeding and reintroduction efforts, like the one underway at El Encinarejo, there are now around 6,000 wild and semi-wild bison in Europe living in Poland, Romania, Czech Republic, The Netherlands and elsewhere.

Reintroductions are an important mechanism for expanding the range of European bison and safeguarding the long-term survival of the species, but they also have the potential to contribute to the restoration and sustainable management of grassland and semi-open habitats in Europe. Just like the American bison, European bison can help create and maintain grasslands and semi-open forests, supporting a wealth of insects and birds, through their foraging. Other ungulates benefit too, due to the landscape engineering work of the bison. They also disturb and aerate the soil through their wallowing and trampling behaviour and fertilize the land through their dung.

Contributing to the Area’s Ambitious Rewilding Goals

The intervention area encompasses what’s known as a dehesa landscape, a multifunctional agroforestry landscape comprising a mosaic of open grasslands with scattered evergreen trees, including oaks, and areas of more closed canopy. It is home to a number of conservation priority species such as the endangered Iberian Lynx, the vulnerable Spanish Imperial Eagle (Aquila adalberti) and near threatened Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus). The bison monitoring efforts are part of an ambitious landscape-level approach that aims to restore this unique habitat and conserve the rare species that call El Encinarejo home. 

The Reintroduction of European Bison in Spain hopes to drive widespread changes to landscapes abandoned by livestock activities. This rewilding project will monitor bison movements using GPS collars and camera traps.

Monitoring Reintroduced European Bison in Spain

Eurasian aspen (Populus tremula) is a keystone species that is largely missing from Scottish woodlands today. In Europe, its often found alongside birch, rowan, willow, and alder in the broadleaf component of northern coniferous forests. Together, they can occupy around 15-20% of the forest. In Scotland, aspen mostly exists as small, isolated fragments often consisting of single relict trees. To restore the natural diversity of the native pinewoods and return aspen to the landscape, we are partnering with Alladale Wilderness Reserve on a long-term project to plant and support the natural regeneration of aspen trees on the reserve.   

Planting Aspen: Restoring a Keystone Tree to the Scottish Highlands

Beginning in Spring 2021, we launched a long-term partnership with Alladale to plant and protect aspen trees on the reserve. We hope to significantly increase the amount of aspen on the reserve by planting open areas with trees grown in nurseries and by protecting naturally regenerating aspen from deer browsing with fences. We will focus our efforts in riparian areas where aspen play an important role in stabilising the river bank, creating shade and providing nutrients in the form of leaf fall. In doing so, we will also improve the suitability of the reserve for beavers in the event of their return in the future. 

Aspen is considered to be a keystone species because of its ecological importance for other species. It provides vital habitat for a number of invertebrates, including aspen hoverfly (Hammerschmidtia ferruginea), an endangered species in the UK, as well as a diversity of lichen and bryophytes. Aspen is an important source of food for wildlife like, the Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber), and provides important nesting sites for several species of hole nesting birds, including various species of woodpeckers. In Europe, aspen stands have been shown to be used by capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus), another endangered species in Britain and of great conservation concern. 

Historical management of Scotland’s woodlands for timber meant that non-useful trees, like aspen, were removed. This, coupled with the fact that aspen is one of the most palatable trees to deer and other herbivores, has reduced aspen in Scotland to small isolated fragments.  High densities of deer are now limiting the regeneration and return of aspen to the Scottish landscape. Aspen also rarely produces seeds in Scotland, reproducing mainly by new shoots, called ramets or suckers, growing directly from the root systems of mature trees. As a result, once aspen is removed from a site, it is very slow to colonise. 

We are restoring Eurasian aspen (Populus tremula) to the Scottish Highlands in partnership with Alladale Wilderness Reserve. Learn why aspen is important to protect.

Restoration of Eurasian aspen trees

Returning a Keystone Tree to the Scottish Highlands

The European ground squirrel (Spermophilus citellus) is a burrowing species of squirrel endemic to parts of central and eastern Europe. Due to the widespread destruction and degradation of Europe’s grassland habitats for agriculture, the European ground squirrel has declined across its range and is now classified as endangered on the IUCN red list. To protect one of the remaining populations of European ground squirrel in Slovakia, the project will restore their degraded habitat by increasing feeding opportunities and reducing natural predation pressure.

Protecting Europe's Endangered Endemic Ground Squirrel

Ground squirrels hibernate during the winter in underground burrows only emerging in the spring time when the temperatures improve. To give the ground squirrels a little helping hand this spring, we are supporting our partners Broz to supply the ground squirrel colony with 500kg of sunflower seeds. This will help buy time to implement the longer-term solution, the planting of 50 wild fruit trees, including European crab apple and wild pear, to provide a reliable and diverse source of food. To compliment these restoration activities, Broz will also install 50 nest boxes for birds (e.g. great tits, sparrows, wrens) and small mammals (e.g. dormice) to support local populations of these species in an effort to reduce predation pressure on the ground squirrels. The ground squirrels will also benefit from the warning calls of some of these species, such as blue tits, which increases the chances of detecting approaching predators. 

The European ground squirrel is endemic to Europe, which means it’s found nowhere else in the world. It is undoubtedly an important natural element of European grassland ecosystems. It can help to maintain heterogeneity and complexity in grassland ecosystems, creating patches of higher diversity and structural complexity. Reptiles and amphibians, for example, benefit from using old abandoned burrows for shelter. Ground squirrels are also an important prey species for several top predators, including eagles, buzzards, foxes and weasels. Because of these associations, the European ground squirrel can be considered a keystone species of European grassland ecosystems.  

Not long ago the European ground squirrel was a common species across parts of Central and Eastern Europe. In Slovakia, it was considered a pest species as recently as 1960s. Due to drastic changes in land use and agricultural practices, the ground squirrel has since lost much of its natural habitat and is now classified as endangered. Only a few, small isolated populations remain in Slovakia, and many of them are continuing to decline. A significant threat to the species´ survival is now a lack of feeding opportunities as seeds, fruits and insects are increasingly hard to find in their human-dominated landscapes. 

We are restoring the endangered European ground squirrels' habitat in Slovakia. Learn why this rewilding intervention is so important for this endemic animal.

Saving Slovakia's Ground Squirrels

Increasing Feeding Opportunities and Reducing Predation Pressure

In October 2019, we launched our reforesting Scotland project to restore the Caledonian forest in the Scottish Highlands. So far we’ve planted 6,000 native trees at Alladale Wilderness Reserve.

The reforesting Scotland project aims to restore and diversify the native pinewood habitat. Scots pine and downy birch saplings are being planted in open areas while less common food-producing broadleaf species are being planted in existing planting schemes to enrich and diversify the growing woodland. River banks are being planted with species such as alder and bird cherry to help stabilise the river bank and create vital riparian woodland habitat.

To compliment the reforestation activities, rewilding interventions are being developed for the area, including monitoring of Atlantic salmon, construction of eagle nest platforms and translocation of mountain hares. 

Pine sapling.jpg

We plant Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), downy birch (Betula pubescens), juniper (Juniperus communis), hazel (Corylus avellana), holly (Ilex aquifolium), European crab apple (Malus sylvestris), common hawthorn (Cratageus monogyna), alder (Alnus glutinosa), bird cherry (Prunus padus), Elder (Sambucus nigra) and Wych elm (Ulmus glabra).

Twinflower (Linnea borealis), black grouse (Lyrurus tetrix), golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla), red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris), Scottish crossbill (Loxia scotica), pine marten (Martes martes) and Atlantic salmon (Salmon salar) are all present in the area.

Historically, much of the Scottish Highlands were covered in a forest of majestic Scots pine and colourful broadleaf trees, home to a diversity of plants and animals. Today, the landscape is largely devoid of these unique woodlands and many of the species that once thrived here have been lost. Our aim is to undo some of this damage and restore the empty glens and rewild the Scottish Highlands to rich, biodiverse, wild woodlands.  

The Scottish pinewoods are a globally unique habitat due to the absence of any other conifer tree, other than Scots pine, within the woodland. These woodlands support some of the UK’s rarest plant and animal species like the beautiful and delicate twinflower, the elusive wildcat and the impressive capercaillie. Restoring native woodlands in all their beautiful complexity will help return Scotland to wilder, richer state that a variety of species, including humans, can enjoy.

At the end of the last Ice Age, much of the Scottish Highlands were covered in woodland, mainly composed of Scots pine and birch. Around 4,000 years ago, the climate began to change. The natural tree line lowered, peat bogs expanded and woodland cover began to decline.

At around the same time, humans began to significantly change the landscape around them. Trees were felled to make room for crops and graze livestock, to harvest timber and fuelwood. By the 1700s, the great Caledonian Forest was reduced to small, isolated pockets of the Highlands. Much of the wildlife that thrived here, like lynx, bears and wolves, were lost.

In the 18th and 19th century, when much of the landscape had already been cleared of forests, estate owners began to clear the land of people. Known as the Highland Clearances, local people were forcibly evicted from their homes, entire villages were cleared, to make way for sheep grazing. Today, a combination of sheep farming, unsustainable numbers of deer and intensive land management for sporting purposes is restricting the ability of native woodlands to regenerate on their own. Reforestation with native species is therefore vital to restore this unique habitat.

In 2019, we launched our reforesting Scotland project to restore the Caledonian forest in the Scottish Highlands.

Reforesting Scotland

Along the shores of Lac Aloatra in Madagascar lives an endemic reed dwelling lemur – the Alaotran gentle lemur (Hapalemur alaotrensis). Locally known as Bandro, the Alaotran gentle lemur is under threat from habitat loss, bushmeat hunting and the pet trade. The most recent figures point to an alarming decline in their numbers over the last five years, with 30% of the wild population being lost. Today, there are only an estimated 5,000 Alaotran gentle lemurs left. So, in February 2020, we joined forces with Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust to support their work in restoring the vital wetland habitat that the lemurs depend on and help bring them back from the brink of extinction. This project is funded through our business membership with PCF Bank. 

Invasive aquatic plants, salvinia (Salvinia molesta) and water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes), are currently causing severe problems in Lac Alaotra. They cover approximately 60% of the primary fishing channels and access routes around the lake and marshes. Local fisherpeople are then forced to burn new areas of reedbeds and marshes so that they can access the lake and earn a living. These plants are also reducing water quality and preventing the reedbeds from naturally generating. To improve access for fishing and patrol canoes and improve water quality, we are supporting the clearing of invasive plants along 10km of key fishing and access channels. This will be carried out by the local community members, who will also benefit from the project through the production of organic compost, made from the plant waste. Community patrol teams will then monitor the cleared areas to prevent the invasive plants from returning.    

The Alaotran gentle lemur is endemic to Lac Alaotra. This means it’s found nowhere else in the world. It is also the only primate in the world whose habitat is confined to wetlands. Because of this, it is at extreme risk of global extinction if we do not intervene. It is one of five species of bamboo or gentle lemur but is significantly larger than the others. It uses its grasping hands and feet and long tail to balance when walking along reed stalks in its lakeside habitat and may possibly be able to swim.

Lac Alaotra is Madagascar's most important rice-producing region and inland fishery. Unfortunately, migrating populations who come to Alaotra seeking fertile croplands are burning huge swathes of reed beds to convert to rice-paddies. Years of poor management and traditional monoculture cultivation have gradually reduced annual productivity, creating a vicious cycle in which more land is burnt each year for agriculture. Approximately 2,000 hectares of marshland are burnt each year, with devastating consequences for the lemurs. The quality of the lake and its wetland habitats are also under threat from the deforestation of the surrounding hills, which is causing soil erosion and water pollution of surrounding areas.

While habitat loss is the primary threat to the gentle lemur, hunting for food and for the pet trade is also adding to the problem. Although legally protected in Madagascar, evidence suggests that a large number of lemurs are hunted annually, with more than 1,000 casualties recorded in some years. To compliment the habitat restoration work, Durrell are also running a local education programme to improve awareness among local people of the importance of protecting the lemurs and their habitat. 

Along with the wildlife pet trade, find out about other imminent threats facing wildlife from human-related activities in our Responsible Travel Tips guide. The guide highlights issues associated with tourism and provides tips on how to play a positive part in them.

The Alaotra Gentle Lemur's habitat is under threat from invasive plants. This lemur conservation project aims to restore their habitat by clearing these plants.

Restoring the Habitat of the Critically Endangered Alaotra Gentle Lemur

Clearing Invasive Plants To Protect a Critically Endangered Lemur

In early 2021, we will be supporting the Kyle of Sutherland Fisheries Trust to monitor Atlantic salmon migration, and identify barriers to their movements, at Alladale Wilderness Reserve. We will be sponsoring 10 radio tags to enable the Trust to monitor the movement of salmon upstream. This project is funded through our wonderful business partners Inlumi. 

Learn more about why we are monitoring Atlantic salmon migration

Why are salmon important to the ecosystem?

Every year in Autumn, Scotland's crystal clear salmon rivers and streams are transformed into a frenzy of fish leaping and swimming their way upstream to spawn in freshwater gravel beds, before returning to sea. In doing so, salmon help bring nutrients from the ocean ecosystem upstream into freshwater environments. Through excretion, spawning, death and decay, salmon directly affect the ecology of their freshwater environments and increase nutrient availability for algae, invertebrates and young salmon. 

Salmon themselves are an important food source for an abundance of aquatic and terrestrial wildlife, such as otters, waterfowl and eagles. At sea, salmon are predated on by some of the ocean's top predators, such as sharks, dolphins and seals. They also have an interesting symbiotic relationship with a priority species in the UK Biodiversity Action Plan, the freshwater pearl mussel (Margaritifera margaritifera). Adult mussels filter water, improving the water quality and reproductive conditions for salmon, and salmon return the favour by providing a safe environment for mussel larvae to develop within their gills.

According to the Atlantic Salmon Trust, for every 100 wild Atlantic salmon (Salmo sala) that leave Scotland’s rivers for the sea, fewer than five return. This represents a decline of nearly 70% in 25 years. There is no single cause of this decline in migration, but a complex web of anthropogenic activities, including climate change. On the River Carron, which runs through our reforestation area at Alladale Wilderness Reserve, a unique situation exists. Water from the uppermost reaches of the river is re-routed to another catchment for hydro-electric power generation via a tunnel. Consequently, migrating juvenile salmon would be likely to head down this pipe and be “lost” to the Carron system. The historic solution was to put a dam immediately downstream to prevent adult salmon from spawning in this area and retain their offspring in the Carron system.

For a number of years, salmon have been reported above the dam. For several consecutive seasons, salmon/trout hybrids and some full juvenile salmon have been caught above this dam. This implies that salmon are circumventing the dam and spawning there, but the exact mechanism is unknown. One of the ways salmon could be getting over the damn is swimming through the scour valve when it is opened for a few hours in the autumn. In partnership with the Kyle of Sutherland Fisheries Trust, we are supporting efforts to radio track the salmon and identify the way in which salmon are ascending the dam by funding the purchase of 10 radio tags. This will help provide the Trust with vital information for the conservation of wild Atlantic salmon in the River Carron. 

Tiago, our conservation biologist, sat down with Jaakko Erkinaro. A renowned researcher, Jaakko's fields of research cover both freshwater and marine phases of salmonid fishes, for which he has published over one hundred peer-reviewed scientific articles. Together they discussed threatened freshwater ecosystems, the problems migratory fish face, and the conservation of such watercourses.

Learn more about migratory fish, their threats & conservation

Migratory Fish - Threats & Conservation

Migratory fish - threats & conservation | a chat with professor Jakko Erkinaro

To contribute to the conservation of Scotland's Atlantic salmon we will be supporting the tagging and migration tracking of wild salmon as they move up river to spawn. 

Tagging Wild Atlantic Salmon in Scotland

In the autumn of 2020, we supported Alladale Wilderness Reserve and the Roy Dennis Wildlife Foundation in building eagle nest platforms in Scottish pinewoods. The nests aim to promote breeding among the resident population of golden eagles and support the return of white-tailed eagles, two birds of prey of conservation concern in the UK. This project was funded through the business membership of our partner Inlumi. 

Building nests for Golden and White-tailed eagles

Learn more about why we are building nest platforms for eagles

Historically, white-tailed sea eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) and golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) could both be found patrolling the skies of Scotland. Around 100 years ago when white-tailed eagles were eradicated from Britain primarily through persecution due to its reputation of predating lambs. Golden eagles were also persecuted for predating lambs as well as economically valuable game birds until it was eradicated from England and Wales. Habitat loss and pesticide poisoning also played a role in the decline of these species. In the 1970s, reintroduction efforts began to return white-tailed eagles to Scotland using birds from Norway while golden eagle populations in Scotland have soured through. In 2019, a white-tailed sea eagle was spotted at Alladale Wilderness Reserve and stayed in the area for several weeks for the first time since their disappearance. A pair of golden eagles have already made the reserve their home. 

A white-tailed sea eagle soars the skies near our project area in Scotland

White-tailed eagle

In partnership with Alladale Wilderness Reserve and the Roy Dennis Foundation, Mossy Earth funded the construction of artificial nest platforms to encourage these magnificent birds of prey to nest on the reserve and support the local population of these rare species.  The project involved building 2 artificial nest platforms, each targeted towards a species. After identifying suitable areas of the reserve for the nests, construction began in Autumn 2020 in time for breeding the following spring. Camera traps were installed on the platforms to monitor the activity at the nests and identify any species that visit the sites within the first year.

To support the local population of golden eagles and white-tailed sea eagles we will build nest platforms to encourage the eagles to nest on the reserve. 

Building Eagle Nest Platforms

For the Spring 2020 rewilding project, we head to the location of our new project, Slovakia, where we support our amazing partners, Broz, to restore the Danube floodplain forests. Our members were given the choice between meadow restoration, habitat restoration for the Pannonian root vole and protecting European pond turtle eggs & nests. Our members chose to support the wonderful work to protect Slovakia's endangered population of European pond turtles. 

Slovakia Rewilding Vote

Learn more about why we are protecting European pond turtle eggs & nests

Discussions of turtle conservation more often than not bring up images of charismatic sea turtles, like the logger head and green turtle, gliding through crystal clear warm waters and bathing on soft white tropical sand. Both these species are also found in Europe, specifically the Mediterranean Sea, and are the focus of ambitious conservation projects to protect against the large number of threats they face in Europe, both on land and at sea. These include harvesting for consumption, habitat degradation, disturbance and fishing-induced mortality. Lesser known but equally deserving of our attention are Europe’s freshwater turtles. Many freshwater species, which includes terrapins and pond turtles, are under threat from the pet trade, habitat degradation, habitat fragmentation, vehicle collisions and non-native predators, yet their conservation seems less of a priority. That’s why we’ve partnered with Broz, our partners in Slovakia, to protect one such species, the little European pond turtle, and help safeguard its future in Slovakia. 

Fossil records show the European pond turtle (Emys orbicularis) has been present in Slovakia for at least 120,000 years. However, in recent years it has disappeared from much of its range. Today, there are only two known sites with a viable breeding population in Slovakia. These pond turtles live in open habitats and rely on wetlands, ponds and water channels for hunting and moving. Eggs are laid in shallow under ground nests in sandy soils with little vegetation. Depending on the weather, the hatchlings can remain at the nest site throughout winter and start emerging in spring following year. Unfortunately, the European pond turtle is losing suitable breeding habitat across much of its range as land is converted to agriculture and nests destroyed and turtles killed by agricultural disturbance.

The nesting behaviour of these pond turtles leaves them susceptible to predators as well. Our partners have access to one of the last remaining breeding populations in Slovakia, where predation is the main threat. Predator protection measures are there a vital conservation intervention to protect this important population. The project funds the training of detection dog to detect turtle eggs underground. Since nests are practically invisible to the human eye, the detection dog will accompany the field team to the breeding site to survey for active nests. Fences are erected over active nests to protect the eggs and hatchlings from predators, thereby helping to improve the reproductive success of one of Slovakia’s last remaining breeding populations of European pond turtle.

To support the conservation of the turtles more widely, the team are tagging turtles with GPS trackers to enable them to monitoring their movement patterns in the long term. This will provide crucial data to enable the team to identify important areas of habitat for protection and restoration, including any unknown breeding sites.

To contribute to the conservation of Slovakia's European Pond Turtle we are supporting surveying and protection of active nests and turtle eggs.

Protecting Turtle Nests & Eggs

Conserving Slovakia's European Pond Turtle

In early 2021, we partnered with Oana Namibia to fund a native plant nursery to support future large-scale reforestation and reforestation efforts. Oana is located in Southern Namibia, where the landscape is characterised by open desert shrubland interspersed by mountainous terrain, wooded ephemeral (intermittent water) and perennial (constant water) river beds, and grassy sand and gravel plains. These habitats are threatened by overgrazing, the spread of non-native Prosopis spp., climate change and erosion. Oana has already made great progress in clearing large areas of Prosopis and will soon be able to start restoring the river beds as well as the grassland ecosystem through planting. 

Rewilding the Namibian Deep South

The funding from this project will cover the main supplies needed to build a 300 m2 nursery. This nursery will supply the seedlings and saplings of native trees and grasses for future planting and restoration, and house native succulents, like elephant’s trunk (Pachypodium namaquanum) and quiver tree (Aloidendron dichotomum), in case of local extinctions. The funding will enable Oana to purchase the shade cover, seed house, irrigation system and planting equipment (pots, secateurs, buckets etc.). 

Learn more about the context behind this project

The river beds of Oana and the surrounding areas act as islands of fertility in an otherwise dry, desert habitat. Camel thorn or giraffe thorn (Vacheillia erioloba) is one of only a few tree species native to the area and is considered to be a keystone species while the sandy plains are home to species of Eragrostis, Stipagrostis and Schmidtia grasses, which provide food for the local wildlife and shelter for small animals.

Across much of the landscape, overgrazing by domestic livestock is threatening the little vegetation that is capable of surviving in this harsh landscape. The fertile woodlands vital for many species are threatened by the spread of non-native Prosopis, introduced to the area to provide shade and livestock fodder, which increases desertification, outcompetes native flora and ultimately overtakes and homogenizes the river beds. Meanwhile, the grasses of the sandy plains have been overgrazed and left vulnerable to erosion. With climate change likely to increase the frequency of climatic extremes and rainfall, this is likely to become an even bigger problem in the future. 

This project would fund the construction of a local nursery to provide seedlings and saplings of native trees and grasses for future planting and restoration.

Building A Tree Nursery

Preparing For Future Reforestation and Habitat Restoration

In April 2020, we launched our project to restore one of the last remnants of Central Europe’s floodplain forests. With our local partner Broz, we are planting trees along the Danube river in Slovakia.

The project aims to restore this unique forest and conserve the diversity of fauna and flora that inhabit the area. By planting open areas with native trees, such as poplars, elms and maples, we are working to increase forest cover and habitat availability for species like the locally endangered black stork, the charismatic beaver and the rare large copper butterfly. Floodplain forests are an important carbon sink and their restoration has the potential to sequester a large amount of carbon and contribute to the fight against the climate crisis.  

Slovakia saplings.jpeg

Silver poplar (Populus alba), black poplar (Populus nigra), European ash (Fraxinus excelsior), narrow-leafed ash (Fraxinus angustifolia), European white elm (Ulmus leavis), field elm (Ulmus minor), common oak (Quercus robur), Norway maple (Acer platanoides).

European pond turtle (Emys orbicularis), black stork (Ciconia nigra), stag beetle (Lucanus cervus), large copper (Lycaena dispar).

One of the most endangered forest habitats in the world, today, only 5-20% of the Danube floodplains are forested. They grow along rivers and streams and are characterised by an intricate dynamic flooding and dry periods, a variety of different water conditions (slow flowing, fast flowing, standing and quick drying water bodies) and high groundwater. These diverse conditions mean the forests can support a diversity of species. They also play an important role in filtering and cleaning water supplies and providing natural protection against floods.

The unique floodplain forests are home to a diversity of mammals, like the Eurasian river otter and beaver. They are also an important habitat for birds, with a high density of species comparable to other forest types. The locally endangered black stork and white-tailed eagle nest on the tall trees while the black woodpecker occupies the natural cavities in the tree trunks. With over 60 fish species, 109 molluscs and thousands of insects species, these forests are teeming with life. Among the busy communities of these forests, you can find the rare stag beetle and beautiful large copper.

Unsustainable forest management has caused the destruction and degradation of huge swathes of the native Danube floodplain forests. Traditional management practices has focused on maximising wood and pulp production, through large scale clear-cuts, the removal of top soil as well as the planting of hybrid poplars and other non-native tree species. A lack of food and shelter in these non-native monocultures means they are unable to support the diversity of species found in native forests. Harvested at an age of 20-40 years, these forests are unable to reach maturity. Old trees in which woodpeckers and other birds could nest are entirely absent, as well as the dead wood that many insects and fungi rely on. The rich native herbs, fungi and trusses of the undergrowth are also unable to re-establish in that time period.

Humans have severely altered the hydrology of the area and caused significant damage as a result. The Danube floodplain habitats rely on healthy rivers and waterbodies as well as periods of flooding and high groundwater levels. However, decades of regulating watercourses, construction of dams and draining of flooded areas, has left these unique floodplain habitats in poor condition and a fraction of the size they once were. With increased temperatures and decreasing rainfall brought on by the current climate crisis, the future of this unique habitat is at even greater risk.

The Danube floodplain forests cover only a fraction of what they did in the past. Our Restoring The Floodplain Forests project seeks to reverse this damage.

Slovakia - Restoring The Floodplain Forests of the Danube

Romania's Carpathian Mountains are home to some of Europe’s last remaining truly wild forests and the largest population of bears, wolves and lynx. Sadly, this ecosystem hangs in the balance due to years of illegal logging. Our goal is to restore the barren clear cuts that threaten these forests. In partnership with Foundation Conservation Carpathia we are working to restore clear cuts in the Romania's Southern Carpathian Mountains. 

Brown bear.jpeg

We plant Norway spruce (Picea abies), silver fir (Abies alba), wych elm (Ulmus glabra), rowan (Sorbus aucuparia), European ash (Fraxinus excelsior), Norway maple (Acer platanoides) and European beech (Fagus slyvatica).

Brown bear (Ursus arctos), Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), grey wolf (Canis lupus), European bison (Bison bonases) and Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber) are all present in the area.

On the ground at our project area in the Southern Carpathians

Reforesting the Southern Carpathians

The Southern Carpathian Mountains in Romania have some of the most intact ecosystems in Europe. These mountains are a treasure of biodiversity and a shared heritage that should remain for future generations to enjoy peacefully.

Old growth forests in Europe have become extremely scarce, the Carpathian Mountains represent the biggest unfragmented area of virgin forests in Europe. The Carpathians are home to the largest populations of large carnivores in Europe including bears, wolves and lynx. The area is home to an extraordinary range of endemic species as well.

Camera trap footage of wildlife in winter in the Southern Carpathians

Winter Camera Traps Souther Carpathians

The communist People’s Republic of Romania formed through Soviet occupation of the country following World War II. During this era, thousands of people suffered under the dictatorship of Nicolae Ceaușescu. Romania's wilderness, in comparison, faired quite well. It was seemingly protected from the kind of exploitation experienced throughout other areas of Europe at the time and acted as a refuge for species that were declining across Europe. It is believed Ceaușescu, being a less than capable hunter, is the reason for the comparatively high number of bears in the Carpathian Mountains today. Big game hunting was extremely limited during this time, and permits were granted almost entirely to the Communist Party members. Unable to shoot many bears, his trusted aides also launched a re-population programme so that he had a better chance of killing one, alleviating them from his tempers.

After the collapse of the Romanian economy in the 1980s and the fall of the Communist government, Romania's national forests were restituted to private owners. Newly privatised and communal forests have continued to be clear cut at an alarming rate ever since. At the same time, the democratization of hunting has caused dramatic declines in wildlife populations. Although there is rising awareness about the dramatic situation of some of the last old-growth forest in Europe, reforesting action needs to be taken now, as logging continues to destroy these precious areas.

Our reforesting the Southern Carpathians project seeks to turn the tide on illegal clear cuts by restoring one of the most wild ecosystems in Europe.

Reforesting The Southern Carpathians

Healing clear-cuts in Europe's last remaining wilderness

In partnership with Associação Transumância e Natureza and Rewilding Portugal, our Wildfire Restoration project focused on restoring forests to an area of the Duoro Valley in Portugal under threat from centuries of agriculture and, more recently, the devastating Portugal wildfires of 2017.

After planting along all the waterlines and flatter fertile areas of the mountain valley, we successfully reached our tree planting capacity in 2019. Ongoing work will involve monitoring tree survival rates, replanting lost trees, weeding, and watering.

We also supported the tagging of 6 griffon vultures with GPS devices for monitoring purposes in the nearby Côa Valley.

At our Wildfire Restoration project we plant Portuguese oak (Quercus faginea), cork oak (Quercus suber), holm oak (Quercus ilex), English oak (Quercus robur), juniper (Juniperus communis), wild olive (Olea europaea), strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo), willow (Salix spp.), ash (Fraxinum spp.) and wild hack berry (Celtis australis).

Grey wolf (Canis lupus), Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), wild boar (Sus scrofa), griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus), Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus) and black vulture (Aegypius monachus) are all present in the area.

Restoring ecosystems in a harsh environment

In order to ensure our trees have the best chance of surviving the hot Portuguese summers, we built a water source from a nearby reservoir and installed a drip feed system to provide water to each individual tree. In the future, grazing by wild horses would help prevent disastrous wildfires. - The only areas not to burn in the 2017 fires were the native forests grazed by wild horses.

Douro International Natural Park

Across Europe, families and young people are leaving urban areas for cities in search of a better life. This trend in land abandonment provides opportunities for rewilding, but it also presents challenges. In areas where native grazers have disappeared, open landscapes that had previously been managed for shepherding and other forms of livestock grazing become overgrown with shrubs and woodland. The increased fuel load combined with hotter, dryer summers can increase the incidence, scale, and intensity of wildfires.

On the 26th and 27th of August 2017, a wildfire burned through a large area of the Douro Natural Park. It was one of the many fires that ripped through Portugal that year. A summer that not only saw an abnormal 120,000 hectares burn but also the worst loss of life in the country this century. More than 150 firefighters were involved in putting out the Douro Valley fire, supported by 51 vehicles, 2 helicopters, and 1 airplane. By the afternoon of the 27th, the fire was finally under control but not before causing catastrophic economic and ecological damage to the area.

Since the Portugal wildfires of 2017 blazed, vultures and eagles that nest in the nearby cliffs were the first species to return. We also witnessed a significant increase in bees and bird life to the area, in particular, the red-legged partridge, which is a favourite prey of the raptors. There has also been evidence of roe deer, wild boar, and rabbits returning to the valley.

Wildfire Restoration Spring planting update

Our Wildfire Restoration project aims to restore forests to an area that was devastated by the Portugal wildfires of 2017.

Wildfire Restoration

Bringing hope and life to a valley devastated by fire

Working alongside our local partner, Montis, we restore native oak woodlands and combat dominant Portuguese Broom and Portugal's summer wildfires. Our vision is to have a dense native oak woodland within 15 years, where the canopy shade manages the shrub overgrowth, fuel availability is lower, and biodiversity is higher.

Sapling.JPG

We plant Portuguese oak (Quercus faginea), English oak (Quercus robur), holm oak (Quercus ilex), cork oak (Quercus suber), Pyrenean oak (Quercus pyrenaica), European ash (Fraxinus excelsior), strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo), hazel (Corylus avellana), lourel (Prunus lusitanica), elder (Sambucus nigra) and elm (Ulmus minor).

Grey wolf (Canis lupus), common genet (Genetta genetta), Bonelli's eagle (Aquila fasciata), and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) are all present in the area.

To reduce the severity of Portugal's wildfires, the team uses controlled burns to reduce fuel load. This also serves to accelerate the forest regrowth. In an ecosystem adapted to fires, the root systems of many species can survive and the trees can benefit from the extra nutrients in the soil. Controlled burns also clear the area of overgrown shrubs and vegetation, allowing us to replant native oak trees.

After the first controlled burn, a few immediate positive impacts were visible. The ashes improved the nutrition of the soil. The few young oaks that dotted the intervention area sprung back to life much faster than other plants. Finally, an increase in young shoots and small flowers has led to an increase in rabbit populations and insect biodiversity.

Farmland abandonment and a lack of native grazers has allowed the Portuguese broom (Cytisus striatus) to take over the mountainside. In the summer, this tall shrub dries up and becomes the perfect fuel for Portugal's wildfires. In a landscape that deals with the reality of regular fires, with a natural wildfire expected every 8-12 years, this poses a very real threat to local populations. It also hinders the regeneration of the fire resistant oak woodlands.

The native oak trees are more resistant to these wildfires, and could ultimately spread across the mountainside, but the process would take too long, around 100 – 150 years. The current shrub vegetation that covers the landscape burns intensely fast, which makes it impossible for firemen to manage. This means wildfires can quickly get out of control and pose a threat to local people.

We launched our Oak Woodland Restoration project to restore native oak forests combat the dominant Portuguese Broom and help prevent Portugal's summer wildfires

Oak Woodland Restoration

Restoring native oak woodlands in areas prone to wildfires

South of the Douro river in Portugal, there is an Iberian wolf (Canis lupus signatus) subpopulation that, on top of other challenges, is being threatened by conflict with local farmers. When wolves attack livestock they become an economic burden for the local community, which may respond by killing or harming them. Unless this conflict is resolved it is difficult to see a viable future for the Iberian wolf in the region. For the August 2020 vote, we decided to work with our partners at Rewilding Portugal and focus on this issue. Our members could choose between 3 well-tested solutions to minimising wolf attacks: supporting livestock guarding dogs, building a wolf-proof fence or financing camera trap monitoring.  Supporting livestock guarding dogs was the option that won the vote. 

The Iberian Wolf - Mossy Earth Rewilding Vote

Livestock guarding dogs from native breeds, such as Serra da Estrela and Castro Laboreiro, can be extremely effective in detecting wolves near the flock/herd and chasing them away, thereby preventing wolf attacks and livestock losses from occurring. Still, there are significant costs associated with acquiring and taking good care of the dogs and this can deter farmers from embracing the solution. Rewilding Portugal is working together with Grupo Lobo to address this and make it easier for local farmers to acquire and maintain livestock guarding dogs.

This project involves providing food for 5 - 7 dogs until they are fully grown (about 18 months). Other than encouraging farmers, the intervention is designed to ensure that the dogs are properly fed so that they can become strong and effective protectors of the domestic animals and therefore decrease social conflict between these farmers and the Iberian wolf.  Support is directed towards farmers that experience a high risk of wolf attacks and that commit to taking good care of the dogs. Continued check ups with the farmers will be used to evaluate the effectiveness of the project. 

In Portugal, the Iberian wolf population is divided by the Douro river. While north of the Douro the subpopulation is larger and more stable, south of the Douro there are only a handful of scattered packs. This subpopulation is threatened by habitat destruction and fragmentation, large rural fires, illegal persecution, a lack of wild prey, and conflict with farmers. 

The main causes of wolf mortality in the region are due to humans – either due to traffic collisions, snares (directed at other species such as wild boar), or illegal persecution (the wolves are illegally shot). Taking into account the small size of the subpopulation (certainly fewer than 50 individuals) and its fragmented and unstable situation, decreasing the main causes of mortality to wolves is critical to ensure the long-term viability of the species in the region. 

Due to the lack of wild prey and poor protection of domestic animals, wolves often prey on domestic goats, sheep and cows, creating a social conflict with local communities. In the region, livestock breeding is one of the main economic activities, and the attacks from Iberian wolf can have a serious impact on the livelihood of some farmers. 

In this context, reducing conflict between wolves and livestock breeders is of paramount importance to safeguard the future of the Iberian wolf in this region and protect the livelihoods of the rural people. Rewilding in this instance is tied to improving coexistence with a large carnivore.

The project area includes the whole wolf range south of the Douro river. It is believed that a large part of the Iberian wolf subpopulation is currently in the areas of Montemuro and Serras da Freita e Arada. There are also some wolf packs in the middle zone of the project, in the areas of Leomil, Trancoso and Lapa. Due to their location and the stability of some of these packs they can play an important role in connecting Montemuro/Freita e Arada with the packs nearer the Spanish border.

This is extremely important considering that the wolf subpopulation is genetically isolated, particularly the packs in Montemuro/Freita e Arada. In the west, the areas of the Douro International and Malcata are currently the known limits of wolf distribution. This is an area of more irregular wolf presence, which receives dispersing wolves from the Spanish population. The stability of these packs plays a key role in bringing genetic diversity to the area.

Rather than being implemented in isolation, the chosen project will fit with the wider context of ecological restoration and rewilding in the area. Rewilding Portugal is coordinating the LIFE WolFlux project, which aims to decrease the ecological and socioeconomic barriers to the long-term viability of the Iberian wolf subpopulation south of the Douro river. Rewilding Portugal is implementing this five-year project (2019-2023) in partnership with other local partners. The LIFE WolFlux project is co-financed by the Endangered Landscapes Programme. The chosen Mossy Earth project will complement this LIFE project and allow Rewilding Portugal to have a greater impact in the region. 

The broader context of rewilding efforts in the area 

An overview of wolf conservation in Europe

Although the wolf is listed as ‘Least Concern’ in Europe, it is threatened at a national level in several countries (Sweden/Norway, Germany, France). It is therefore protected in Europe under a number of European Union agreements. The Berne Convention (The Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats lists the wolf in Appendix II as a strictly protected species. Some countries that have signed the convention however, have been able to exclude the wolf from this convention, for example Finland, Poland and Spain. 

The wolf is also protected by the Habitats Directive (Council Directive 92/43 EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and wild flora and fauna). It is listed in Annexe II, which means it is considered species of community interest whose conservation requires the designation of special areas and Annexe IV, a species in need of strict protection. However, in some areas of Spain and Greece, in the Baltic countries and in the Finnish reindeer herding area, wolves are listed in Annexe V, which means they are a species whose taking in the wild and exploitation may be subject to management measures. 

Through the Berne Convention, an Action Plan for the conservation of wolves in Europe has been developed which requires management of wolf populations across borders and the formulation of individual action plans for each country. However, wolves are still legally hunted in a number of non-EU countries, including Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, FYR Macedonia, with limited legal hunting in some EU member states. 

Supporting livestock guarding dogs is a rewilding project designed to prevent wolf attacks on local farmers' sheep by the Iberian wolf.

Support livestock guarding dogs

Human-wolf coexistence in northern Portugal

In the summer of 2019, our members voted to decide on the project we would implement in the Côa Valley in northern Portugal, the location of our Wildlife Restoration project. They could choose between a feasibility study for the reintroduction of roe deer, Boundary & internal fencing or GPS tagging griffon vultures. It was the latter that took the vote and since July 2019 we have been supporting this vulture conservation intervention in collaboration with our partners at Rewilding Portugal. The detailed behavioural data acquired through this project is already providing answers to questions that before were only a matter of speculation. 

Our Projects

Reforestation

Rewilding

Cave clean up

Foraois | Reforesting Ireland

Monitoring Reintroduced European Bison

Restoring Aspen

Saving Slovakia's Ground Squirrels

Reforesting Scotland